Ocean Currents as Highways: How Marine Animals Navigate the Seas

Marine animals use ocean currents as dynamic travel corridors, combining current-driven drift with active swimming, magnetic sensing, chemical detection, and learned or inherited navigational maps. This article explains how sea turtles, whales, fish, penguins, and larval invertebrates exploit currents for migration, foraging, and dispersal, and describes the sensory mechanisms that make these journeys possible. The practical outcome is a working understanding of major current systems, the species that follow them, and the management implications for conservation, fisheries, and marine planning.

At a Glance: Current Systems and the Species That Use Them

Ocean currents function as marine highways because they transport water masses, nutrients, and heat across vast distances. Animals position themselves within these flows to reduce energy costs, reach feeding grounds, or disperse offspring. The table below summarizes major current systems, representative species, and the primary navigational strategy each species employs.

How Currents Shape Migration Routes

Ocean currents are not passive conveyor belts. They are structured flows with variable speed, direction, and depth, and animals interact with them in ways that range from near-complete drift to active counter-current swimming. Understanding this interaction requires distinguishing between the water movement itself and the animal's own propulsion.

The Physics of Current-Driven Transport

Currents arise from wind stress, temperature and salinity gradients, tidal forces, and the Earth's rotation. The Gulf Stream, the Kuroshio, and the Agulhas Current are western boundary currents that move warm water poleward. Eastern boundary currents, such as the California and Canary Currents, bring cooler water equatorward. These systems create predictable corridors that migratory species exploit.

For a swimming animal, the ground track is the vector sum of its own swimming velocity and the ambient current velocity. A turtle swimming at 0.5 meters per second in a current moving at 1 meter per second will be displaced downstream unless it adjusts its heading. This is the core challenge of current navigation, and it is the same problem addressed by Zermelo's navigation problem, which seeks the time-optimal heading for a vessel of fixed speed in a variable current field [21].

Active Swimming Versus Passive Drift

The balance between active swimming and passive drift varies by species, life stage, and context. Late-juvenile loggerhead turtles released from Reunion Island during pre-reproductive migration swim at a stable speed of approximately 0.5 meters per second along straight courses, with intermittent course corrections [6]. This pattern is consistent with a map and compass strategy, where the turtle determines a goalward direction and then maintains a compass heading.

Hatchling turtles, by contrast, are far more dependent on currents. Simulations of loggerhead and leatherback hatchling dispersal in the South West Indian Ocean show that most virtual hatchlings are transported southwestward in the Agulhas Current, with three distinct final locations after a year-long simulation: the Agulhas Return, the Southeast Atlantic, and the Southern Ocean zones [19]. The same study found that loggerhead hatchlings, being weaker swimmers than leatherbacks, can be advected northward in nearshore coastal currents. Initial active swimming during the frenzy period strongly influenced dispersal outcomes.

The S-Shaped Path Strategy

Magellanic penguins returning to their colony in the presence of tidal currents demonstrate a sophisticated compromise between directness and energy efficiency. In calm currents, the penguins maintained precise line-of-sight headings to their colony. In stronger currents, they aligned their return paths with lateral flows, which increased travel distance but reduced energy costs and provided increased foraging opportunities [4]. Because the lateral tidal currents reversed direction over the course of the return path, the penguins' paths were consistently S-shaped, yet the birds still returned efficiently to their colonies.

This finding has direct implications for understanding how animals balance multiple objectives during migration. The penguins did not simply minimize travel time. They integrated energy expenditure, foraging opportunity, and directional accuracy into a single behavioral strategy.

Sensory Mechanisms for Current Navigation

Animals cannot see ocean currents directly. They must infer current direction and speed from other cues, including magnetic fields, chemical gradients, temperature, and the movement of water past their bodies. The sensory toolkit varies by species and life stage.

Magnetic Maps and Compasses

The Earth's magnetic field provides a global reference frame that is available in all oceans and at all depths. Juvenile Chinook salmon experimentally exposed to magnetic fields like those at the latitudinal extremes of their ocean range oriented in directions that would lead toward their marine feeding grounds [8]. The fish used the combination of magnetic intensity and inclination angle to assess their geographic location. Because the fish had no prior migratory experience, the magnetic map appears to be inherited.

This finding parallels results in sea turtles, implying that magnetic maps are phylogenetically widespread among long-distance underwater migrants [8]. Sea turtles also show evidence of geomagnetic imprinting and magnetic navigation in natal homing, where adults return to the beaches where they hatched [17]. The green turtle migration to Ascension Island has been a classic problem in open-sea navigation since it was formally posed in 1969 [18].

The map and compass framework distinguishes two steps: a map determines the goalward direction, and a compass orients the animal in that direction [7]. Maps can be deconstructed into cues, structure, and implementation. Cues are the environmental properties used to determine direction. Structure refers to whether the map is discrete or continuous. Implementation covers how animals approach goals and combine multiple information sources [7].

Chemical Cues and Taste

Chemical sensing plays a role in navigation, particularly for animals returning to natal sites or locating specific habitats. The distinction between smell and taste is relevant here. Smell can be put to complex uses including navigating the open oceans, finding prey, and coordinating herds or colonies [3]. Taste, by contrast, is almost always used to make binary decisions about food, such as consume or reject [3].

However, the assumption that taste is a low-bandwidth, categorical sense is not fully supported by current experimental evidence [3]. The gustatory system may be more complex than the five basic qualities model suggests. For navigation purposes, olfactory cues are more likely to provide directional information over long distances, while taste is more relevant to immediate foraging decisions.

Temperature as a Navigational Cue

Temperature gradients are associated with current boundaries, and animals can use them to locate favorable habitats. Juvenile whale sharks in the Red Sea showed significant correlation between presence and mixed-layer depth, wind direction, north-south current velocity, and temperature [11]. The model trends indicated that whale sharks spend more time actively following eddies within the basin, where vertical mixing and chlorophyll enrichment offer increased foraging opportunities.

For Japanese eels, temperature imposes constraints on depth selection during migration. While greater depths present more favorable flow conditions, water temperature may drop near or below 5 degrees Celsius, which becomes increasingly unfavorable [10]. The eel must therefore balance current advantage against thermal tolerance.

Sensory Perception in Larval Stages

Larval marine invertebrates face a different navigational challenge. Their life cycle depends on a successful transition from a free-swimming larval stage to a benthic adult form, and this transition is often a bottleneck in the life cycle [5]. Ciliated larvae navigate their environments, detect essential cues, and activate specialized sensory nervous systems to initiate settlement and metamorphosis.

Sponges, which lack a true nervous system, show coordinated sensory responses, demonstrating that fundamental molecular elements of sensory functions predate the emergence of neural complexity [5]. Cnidarians, as one of the oldest extant phyla with a nervous system, provide insights into the early evolution of neural organization [5]. These findings matter for understanding how currents transport larvae to suitable settlement habitats and how disrupted current patterns might affect recruitment.

Species-Specific Navigation Strategies

Different species have evolved different solutions to the challenge of navigating in moving water. The following sections describe the strategies of major taxonomic groups.

Sea Turtles

Sea turtles are the most studied group for open-ocean navigation. The map and compass strategy has been observed in post-nesting green and hawksbill turtles and has now been confirmed in late-juvenile loggerheads [6]. The loggerhead study demonstrated the importance of considering diving behavior when deriving swimming velocity from tracking data. Using daily time-at-depth distributions and three-dimensional currents, the researchers found that swimming movements follow straight courses at a stable speed, intermittently segmented by course corrections [6].

The computational framework for studying energetics and resource management in sea turtle migration treats the turtle as a vehicle with finite energy reserves that must be allocated between swimming, maintenance, and reproduction [15]. Sea turtle navigation also involves detection of geomagnetic field features, which provides the positional information needed for a magnetic map [16].

Hatchling dispersal is strongly influenced by swimming behavior and oceanography. At the intersection of two ocean current systems, the swimming behavior of hatchlings determines whether they are transported into one current or another [19]. This has implications for survival, because different dispersal zones present different threats, including fisheries bycatch.

Whales and Other Cetaceans

Whales are powerful swimmers that can move independently of currents, but they still interact with current systems for foraging and migration. The rescue of a juvenile humpback whale trapped upstream of the Rance Tidal Power Station in Brittany, France, demonstrated how artificial tidal currents can be used to guide a whale back to open water [14]. The rescue team adjusted water levels and created artificial tidal currents to prevent stranding and guide the individual downstream.

This case provides operational lessons for managing whale entrapment in engineered estuaries. The adaptive management of the tidal power station as a guidance tool, the prioritization of animal welfare and responder safety, and the involvement of trained volunteers were all critical to the successful outcome [14]. The case also highlights the growing relevance of such rescues under increasing coastal development.

Fish

Fish use currents for migration, dispersal, and foraging. The Japanese eel's spawning migration is a particularly demanding journey because eels do not refuel during migration. Simulations using Zermelo's navigation solution and ocean current data predict a trade-off between migration duration and energy cost [10]. Eels should travel at speeds of 0.4 to 0.6 body-lengths per second to retain enough energy reserves for reproduction.

For real eels without full information about ocean currents, optimizing migration in strong surface currents is not possible. When swimming at slow speeds, eels should swim at depths of 200 meters or greater to avoid the strongest surface currents [10]. Migrating at greater depths mitigates seasonal surface effects, but water temperature may become unfavorable.

Chinook salmon demonstrate that magnetic maps can be inherited, allowing juvenile fish with no migratory experience to locate specific oceanic feeding habitats hundreds or thousands of kilometers from their natal sites [8]. This is important because variation in ocean circulation makes passive transport unreliable, and young animals probably take an active role in controlling their migratory trajectories.

Penguins

Penguins are flightless birds that navigate in the ocean while also needing to return to terrestrial breeding colonies. The Magellanic penguin study is the clearest demonstration of current-driven drift being used to enhance energy efficiency [4]. The penguins balanced direct navigation with current-driven drift, maintaining overall directional accuracy while capitalizing on foraging opportunities.

The study used GPS-enhanced dead-reckoning loggers and high-resolution ocean current data to reconstruct penguin travel vectors during foraging trips [4]. By integrating estimates of energy costs and prey pursuits, the researchers found that birds in calm currents maintained precise line-of-sight headings, while birds in stronger currents aligned their return with lateral flows.

Whale Sharks

Whale sharks are highly migratory planktivores that aggregate in areas of ephemeral food abundance. In the Red Sea, juvenile whale shark presence is significantly correlated with mixed-layer depth, wind direction, north-south current velocity, and temperature [11]. The whale sharks spend more time actively following eddies within the basin, where wind, chlorophyll enrichment, and vertical mixing offer increased foraging opportunities.

This association with dynamic ocean features has implications for identifying key whale shark habitats and considering the impact of climate change on preferred environments [11]. If climate change alters current patterns or eddy formation, whale shark distribution may shift accordingly.

Practical Assessment: Observing and Measuring Current Navigation

For researchers, conservation managers, and fisheries professionals, understanding how animals use currents requires a combination of tracking technology, oceanographic data, and behavioral analysis. The following steps outline a practical approach.

Step 1: Define the Navigational Question

Before deploying tracking equipment, clarify what you need to know. Are you interested in migration routes, foraging behavior, dispersal patterns, or the sensory basis of navigation? The question determines the type of data you need and the resolution required.

For migration studies, you need to distinguish active swimming from passive drift. This requires either high-resolution movement data combined with current models, or experimental manipulation of sensory cues. For dispersal studies, Lagrangian particle tracking models can simulate the transport of virtual particles and compare their trajectories with observed animal movements [19].

Step 2: Select Tracking Technology

The choice of tracking technology depends on the species, the study duration, and the spatial scale. Argos platform terminal transmitters have been used for decades to monitor sea turtle movements and diving behavior [6]. GPS loggers provide higher spatial resolution but require retrieval of the device. GPS-enhanced dead-reckoning loggers, as used in the Magellanic penguin study, combine position data with acceleration and heading data to reconstruct fine-scale movement paths [4].

For species that dive, time-at-depth distributions are essential for understanding current exposure. The loggerhead turtle study demonstrated that ignoring subsurface presence leads to incorrect estimates of swimming velocity [6]. Three-dimensional current data are needed to calculate swimming velocity accurately.

Step 3: Obtain Ocean Current Data

Ocean current data are available from ocean circulation models and remote sensing. The Japan Coastal Ocean Predictability Experiment 2 (JCOPE2M) was used in the Japanese eel study to simulate migration scenarios [10]. The Global Ocean Observing System (GOOS) designates Essential Ocean Variables including temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, and phytoplankton distribution [13].

Ocean observation technologies include satellites, drifting and moored buoys, research vessels, ships of opportunity, Animal Borne Ocean Sensors (AniBOS), and unmanned vehicles [13]. The Argo program and the FerryBox initiative are landmark projects that have shaped modern oceanography. Since the year 2000, oceanic research has seen a surge in data collection, with approximately 500,000 sets of measurements for a single variable recorded annually [13].

Step 4: Analyze Movement in a Current Field

The standard approach is to subtract modeled ocean currents from observed movement to derive swimming velocity. However, this requires careful attention to depth. The loggerhead turtle study used a piecewise constant heading model with daily time-at-depth distributions and three-dimensional currents to calculate swimming velocity [6].

Zermelo's navigation problem provides a theoretical framework for understanding optimal headings in variable current fields. Numerical solutions can be computed using grid-based Eulerian level-set schemes or Lagrangian extremal field algorithms [21]. These methods have been applied to ship routing and can be adapted to animal movement studies.

Step 5: Validate with Behavioral Observations

Model results should be validated with direct behavioral observations where possible. The Magellanic penguin study integrated estimates of energy costs and prey pursuits to assess how birds balanced direct navigation with current-driven drift [4]. This integration of movement data, current data, and behavioral context is essential for interpreting navigation strategies.

Records and Measurements

Maintaining accurate records is essential for both research and management applications. The following measurements are relevant to studying current-based navigation.

Movement Records

Movement records should include timestamped positions, dive profiles, and heading data. For the loggerhead turtle study, daily time-at-depth distributions were used to account for subsurface presence [6]. For the penguin study, GPS-enhanced dead-reckoning loggers provided high-resolution movement data [4].

Oceanographic Measurements

Oceanographic measurements should include current velocity at relevant depths, water temperature, salinity, and chlorophyll concentration. The whale shark study correlated tracking data with remote sensing measurements of environmental variables including mixed-layer depth, wind direction, and current velocity [11].

Energy Expenditure Estimates

Energy expenditure can be estimated from swimming speed, body size, and movement patterns. The Japanese eel study simulated migration scenarios to predict paths that minimize migration duration and energy cost [10]. The sea turtle energetics framework treats migration as a resource management problem [15].

Common Failure Patterns in Navigation Studies

Several recurring problems can compromise the validity of navigation studies.

Ignoring Vertical Movement

The most common failure is treating animal movement as quasi-two-dimensional. The loggerhead turtle study explicitly demonstrated that ignoring subsurface presence leads to incorrect estimates of swimming velocity [6]. Animals that dive spend significant time at depths where current speed and direction differ from surface conditions.

Assuming Passive Drift

Another failure is assuming that animals are passive particles in the current field. The hatchling dispersal study showed that initial active swimming during the frenzy period strongly influenced dispersal outcomes [19]. Even weak swimmers can affect their trajectories through active behavior.

Overlooking Sensory Limitations

Animals do not have perfect information about ocean currents. The Japanese eel study noted that real eels without full information about ocean currents cannot optimize their migration in strong surface currents [10]. Models that assume perfect knowledge of the current field will overestimate navigational performance.

Confusing Correlation with Causation

Correlational studies can identify associations between animal presence and environmental variables, but they cannot establish causation. The whale shark study used Generalized Additive Mixed Models to identify significant correlations, but the authors noted that the relationships are complex and require further investigation [11].

Limitations and Knowledge Gaps

Current understanding of animal navigation in ocean currents has several important limitations.

The Ontogeny of Maps

While magnetic maps have been demonstrated in salmon and sea turtles, how animals acquire these maps is not fully understood. Some components of map and compass navigation involve inherited rules and imprinting, but extensive learning is likely required for extrapolating gradients or navigating flexibly between multiple goals [7]. How animals resolve the spatial arrangement of cues to learn maps over large scales is little understood.

The Role of Path Integration

Path integration, the mechanism for determining vectors of self-motion, plays an important role in map learning in mammals over relatively small spatial scales. It has been suggested that path integration could play a similar role in map learning in other taxa and over larger spatial scales [7]. This would imply that path integration is more taxonomically widespread than currently recognized.

The Complexity of Gustatory Coding

The assumption that taste is a simple, categorical sense is not supported by current experimental evidence [3]. The gustatory system may use more complex coding than the five basic qualities model suggests. This has implications for understanding how animals use chemical cues in navigation and foraging.

Climate Change Impacts

Climate change is altering ocean current patterns, temperature regimes, and the timing of seasonal events. The whale shark study noted that understanding how whale sharks rely on ocean dynamics can serve as a reference point for considering the impact of climate change on preferred environments [11]. The hatchling dispersal study noted that turtles might adapt by nesting earlier or later or further south, which could influence hatchling locomotor performance and survival [19].

Welfare and Safety Context

Understanding current-based navigation has direct welfare and safety applications.

Rescue Operations

The humpback whale rescue at the Rance Tidal Power Station demonstrated how understanding tidal currents can be used to guide trapped animals back to open water [14]. The rescue team adjusted water levels and created artificial tidal currents to prevent stranding. Approximately 100 people were mobilized, and the rescue succeeded on the second day of operations.

The operational lessons from this case include the adaptive management of engineered structures as guidance tools, the prioritization of animal welfare and responder safety, and the involvement of trained volunteers [14]. These lessons are transferable to other coastal development contexts.

Fisheries Bycatch

Dispersal patterns determine which areas present bycatch risks. The hatchling dispersal study found that variability in oceanic conditions dispersed virtual hatchlings into different areas where threats, like fisheries bycatch, might influence survival [19]. Understanding dispersal corridors can inform fisheries management and bycatch mitigation.

Dredging and Sediment Impacts

Coastal development, including dredging, can impact marine communities. A study of a large capital dredging project on a reef found that the distance at which 90% of the effect had dissipated was 20 kilometers for suspended sediment concentrations, 14 kilometers for sediment deposition, and 3 to 3.3 kilometers for smothering of corals [9]. These findings are important for impact prediction and management of dredging using zonation schemes.

Professional Escalation Criteria

Researchers and managers should seek expert consultation when facing the following situations.

Unusual Movement Patterns

If tracked animals show movement patterns that cannot be explained by known current conditions or typical navigation strategies, consult with oceanographers and behavioral ecologists. Anomalous movements may indicate unusual current events, sensory impairment, or novel behavioral strategies.

Entrapment Events

If a marine animal becomes trapped in an engineered structure such as a tidal power station, dam, or harbor, contact the relevant stranding network and marine mammal experts immediately. The Rance Tidal Power Station rescue demonstrated the value of rapid multidisciplinary coordination between the French National Stranding Network, local organizations, marine biology stations, international experts, national institutions, authorities, and the tidal energy operator [14].

Climate-Sensitive Habitats

If current patterns in a region are changing due to climate variability, consult with climate modelers and oceanographers to assess potential impacts on migratory species. The whale shark study provides a reference point for identifying key habitats and considering climate change impacts [11].

Data Quality Issues

If ocean current data are unavailable or of poor quality for a study region, consult with operational oceanography centers. The Global Ocean Observing System coordinates ocean observation technologies and data dissemination [13].

Frequently Asked Questions

How do marine animals detect ocean currents?

Marine animals cannot see currents directly. They infer current direction and speed from other cues, including magnetic fields, chemical gradients, temperature, and the movement of water past their bodies. The Earth's magnetic field provides a global reference frame, and juvenile Chinook salmon use magnetic intensity and inclination angle to assess their geographic location [8]. Temperature gradients associated with current boundaries also provide navigational information, as seen in whale sharks in the Red Sea [11].

What is the map and compass strategy in animal navigation?

The map and compass strategy is a two-step process in which animals use a map to determine goalward directions and a compass to orient in those directions [7]. This accounts for a variety of navigational behaviors, from visual landmark navigation in familiar environments to returning long distances from novel sites. Late-juvenile loggerhead turtles use this strategy, swimming along straight courses at a stable speed with intermittent course corrections [6].

Do all marine animals actively swim against currents?

No. The balance between active swimming and passive drift varies by species, life stage, and context. Hatchling turtles are strongly dependent on currents for dispersal, with initial active swimming during the frenzy period influencing outcomes [19]. Magellanic penguins align their return paths with lateral tidal currents to reduce energy costs while maintaining directional accuracy [4]. Japanese eels select depths of 200 meters or greater to avoid strong surface currents when swimming at slow speeds [10].

How do juvenile animals navigate to feeding grounds they have never visited?

Some juvenile animals inherit magnetic maps. Juvenile Chinook salmon with no prior migratory experience responded to magnetic fields like those at the latitudinal extremes of their ocean range by orienting in directions that would lead toward their marine feeding grounds [8]. The fish used the combination of magnetic intensity and inclination angle to assess their geographic location, and the magnetic map appears to be inherited.

What role do eddies play in marine animal navigation?

Eddies are dynamic ocean features that can drive large-scale transport of water masses and nutrients, facilitating localized plankton blooms and affecting migration patterns of higher trophic levels [11]. Juvenile whale sharks in the Red Sea spend more time actively following eddies within the basin, where wind, chlorophyll enrichment, and vertical mixing offer increased foraging opportunities.

How is diving behavior related to current navigation?

Diving behavior determines which current layer an animal experiences. The loggerhead turtle study demonstrated that ignoring subsurface presence leads to incorrect estimates of swimming velocity [6]. Japanese eels swim at depths of 200 meters or greater to avoid strong surface currents, but must balance this against water temperature that may drop near or below 5 degrees Celsius [10].

Can ocean currents be used to guide trapped animals back to sea?

Yes. The rescue of a juvenile humpback whale trapped upstream of the Rance Tidal Power Station in Brittany, France, demonstrated that adjusting water levels and creating artificial tidal currents can guide a whale back to open water [14]. The rescue succeeded on the second day of operations, and the whale was not subsequently reported stranded along the French coast.

How might climate change affect current-based navigation?

Climate change is altering ocean current patterns, temperature regimes, and the timing of seasonal events. The whale shark study noted that understanding how whale sharks rely on ocean dynamics can serve as a reference point for considering the impact of climate change on preferred environments [11]. The hatchling dispersal study noted that turtles might adapt by nesting earlier or later or further south, which could influence hatchling locomotor performance and survival [19].

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References and Further Reading

• NCBI Literature Resources. National Center for Biotechnology Information.
• PubMed. National Library of Medicine.
• Taste.. Current biology : CB, 2023.
• Penguins exploit tidal currents for efficient navigation and opportunistic foraging.. PLoS biology, 2025.
• Sensory perception in marine larvae.. Advances in marine biology, 2025.
• Uncovering loggerhead (Caretta caretta) navigation strategy in the open ocean through the consideration of their diving behaviour.. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface, 2023.
• Map and compass navigation: the mechanism and ontogeny of animal maps.. Animal behaviour, 2025.
• An inherited magnetic map guides ocean navigation in juvenile Pacific salmon.. Current biology : CB, 2014.
• Sediment deposition and coral smothering.. PloS one, 2019.
• The calculated voyage: benchmarking optimal strategies and consumptions in the Japanese eel's spawning migration.. Scientific reports, 2024.
• Flow-driven patterns of whale shark movement in the Red Sea.. 2026.
• The Potential and Prospects of Marine Drugs in Intervening Nerve-Tumor Crosstalk.. 2026.
• Exploring ocean data: comprehensive approaches to data collection and the role of public databases in facilitating the interconnection between ocean and human health.. 2026.
• Successful Rescue of a Juvenile Humpback Whale (&lt,i&gt,Megaptera novaeangliae&lt,/i&gt,) Trapped Upstream of the Rance Tidal Power Station, Brittany, France.. 2025.
• A computational framework for studying energetics and resource management in sea turtle migration and autonomous systems.. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 2021.
• Sea Turtle Navigation and the Detection of Geomagnetic Field Features. Journal of navigation, 1998.
• Evidence for geomagnetic imprinting and magnetic navigation in the natal homing of sea turtles.. Current Biology, 2015.
• The problem of open-sea navigation: the migration of the green turtle to ascension island.. Journal of Theoretical Biology, 1969.
• Effects of swimming behaviour and oceanography on sea turtle hatchling dispersal at the intersection of two ocean current systems. Ecological Modelling, 2020.
• A Navigation Method for UUVs under Ocean Current Disturbance Based on Deep Reinforcement Learning. 2024 7th International Conference on Advanced Algorithms and Control Engineering (ICAACE), 2024.
• Numerical solutions to Zermelo’s navigation problem under variable ocean current fields. Marine Science and Technology Bulletin, 2026.
• A bioinspired navigation strategy that uses magnetic signatures to navigate without GPS in a linearized northern Atlantic ocean: a simulation study. Bioinspiration and Biomimetics, 2021.

This article is educational and does not replace institutional policy, professional advice, or applicable safety and regulatory requirements.