Orthopedic Examination and Lameness Localization in Dogs

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• A systematic orthopedic examination, progressing from gait analysis to static palpation and joint-specific manipulation, is crucial for localizing lameness to a specific anatomical structure before advanced imaging.
• Gait assessment, particularly at a trot on a non-slip surface, is paramount; characteristic head bobbing (forelimb lameness) or pelvic movement (hindlimb lameness) aids localization, while kinetic analysis quantifies objective force asymmetry, detecting subclinical lameness.
• Palpation should follow a consistent distal-to-proximal or proximal-to-distal sequence, focusing on joint effusion, crepitus, and focal pain response, with sedation or anesthesia often required for accurate assessment of instability signs like drawer tests.
• Joint-specific manipulation involves assessing range of motion and applying stress tests (e.g., cranial drawer, tibial thrust, Ortolani test), with findings compared bilaterally and interpreted in conjunction with signalment and history.
• The examination is multimodal, integrating owner history, signalment, gait analysis, static examination, joint manipulation, and potentially kinetic analysis, with sedation or anesthesia employed when awake examination is inconclusive or to assess instability.
• Common diagnostic pitfalls include over-reliance on a single finding, misinterpreting conformational abnormalities, and failing to consider neurologic or muscular origins of lameness, necessitating a thorough bilateral and systematic approach.

Lameness is one of the most common presenting complaints in canine practice, yet the source of the problem is often not where the owner suspects. A systematic orthopedic examination, performed in a consistent sequence, allows the clinician to localize the lameness to a specific joint, bone, or soft tissue structure before imaging is ever considered. This article provides a structured approach to the orthopedic examination and lameness localization in dogs, written for the practicing veterinarian who needs a practical, reasoning-based framework. It covers signalment-based prioritization, gait analysis, the regional palpation sequence, and the use of ancillary tests including goniometry and kinetic analysis. The goal is to answer a single clinical question: where is the lesion, and how confident can I be before advanced imaging?

At a Glance

The Physiology of Lameness and Gait

Lameness is a clinical sign, not a diagnosis. It represents an alteration in the normal gait cycle caused by pain, mechanical restriction, or neurologic dysfunction. Pain arising from articular cartilage, subchondral bone, synovium, or periarticular soft tissues produces characteriztic weight-bearing alterations. Dogs with joint pain shorten the stance phase of the affected limb, reduce the peak vertical force applied, and shift weight to the contralateral limb or the ipsilateral diagonal limb.

Kinetic gait analysis has quantified these compensatory mechanisms. In dogs with coxofemoral osteoarthritis, ground reaction forces are significantly lower in the affected limb compared with the unaffected limb before surgical intervention, and these differences persist until the underlying disease is corrected. Budsberg et al., prospective evaluation of ground reaction forces in dogs undergoing unilateral total hip replacement demonstrated that vertical peak force and impulse values in the treated limb remained lower than the untreated limb through the first postoperative month, then normalized by three to six months. This temporal pattern underscores that force plate data can detect asymmetry before it is visually apparent.

Subclinical lameness is a recognized phenomenon, particularly in breeds with conformational predisposition to orthopedic disease. In a study of English Bulldogs, all dogs had radiographic evidence of hip dysplasia yet none showed pain on hip manipulation, and no significant differences in peak vertical force, vertical impulse, or stance time were found between limbs. However, the mean hindlimb symmetry index was 19.8 percent, far exceeding the 0.3 to 9.6 percent range reported for dogs free of orthopedic disease. Kinetic gait analysis in English Bulldogs concluded that subclinical lameness can be inferred from symmetry indices even when visual examination and palpation are unremarkable. This has direct clinical relevance: a dog with a high symmetry index but no overt lameness may still be in pain and may benefit from treatment.

The orthopedic examination itself has limitations. Subjective lameness scoring and palpation findings do not always correlate with objective kinetic data. In a study of intra-articular therapy for hip osteoarthritis, owner surveys showed significant improvement in pain and lameness after treatment, yet orthopedic examination parameters and radiographic findings showed no significant change. A feasibility study on the use of equine chondrogenic induced mesenchymal stem cells for osteoarthritis in dogs reported this dissociation between subjective owner assessment and objective examination findings. The clinician should therefore treat the orthopedic examination as one component of a multimodal assessment that includes owner observation, kinetic analysis when available, and diagnostic imaging.

Signalment and Historical Prioritization

The history and signalment direct the examination before the dog is touched. Age, breed, sex, and activity level narrow the differential list substantially. A young, large-breed dog with acute hindlimb lameness suggests panosteitis, osteochondritis dissecans, or physeal injury. A middle-aged Labrador Retriever with progressive stifle lameness points toward cranial cruciate ligament disease. An older small-breed dog with chronic forelimb lameness raises concern for elbow dysplasia or medial coronoid disease, while the same signalment with neck pain suggests cervical intervertebral disc disease.

The owner should be asked when the lameness began, whether it is constant or intermittent, whether it worsens after exercise or after rest, and whether it has progressed. Lameness that is worse after rest and improves with activity is typical of inflammatory joint disease. Lameness that worsens with exercise and improves with rest is more consistent with mechanical problems such as meniscal injury or osteochondritis dissecans. The response to previous medications, particularly non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, provides additional information about the inflammatory component of the disease.

Gait Analysis

Gait observation is the first and most informative step of the orthopedic examination. The dog should be observed walking and trotting on a non-slip surface in a straight line, in circles in both directions, and on a slight incline if possible. The trot is the most useful gait for lameness detection because it is a symmetric gait in which the diagonal limbs bear weight simultaneously, making asymmetry easier to appreciate.

The clinician should stand behind and to the side of the dog and observe the head, the pelvis, and each limb individually. A head bob is the classic sign of forelimb lameness: the head rises as the painful forelimb makes contact with the ground, shifting weight caudally. Hindlimb lameness produces a pelvic rise or drop, and the head may drop as the painful hindlimb bears weight. The clinician should also note the arc of each limb, the position of the paw at the swing phase, and whether the dog lands on the toe or the heel. A dog that lands on the toe of the affected limb is often protecting a painful elbow or shoulder, while a dog that lands flat-footed may have a distal limb problem.

The stance phase should be assessed for duration and weight distribution. A dog with a painful limb will shorten the stance phase and may "point" the limb, placing only the toes on the ground. This is particularly common with elbow pain. The clinician should also observe the dog from the front and behind to detect joint effusion, muscle atrophy, or angular deformities that may not be visible from the side.

Kinetic gait analysis using a pressure-sensitive walkway provides objective data that complements visual observation. Peak vertical force and vertical impulse are the most commonly reported variables, and they correlate well with the degree of lameness. Effects of administration of adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction and(https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27580105/) used pressure-sensing walkway data to characterize baseline lameness and to document improvement after treatment. Dogs with baseline peak vertical force in the lowest quartile showed significant improvement after therapy, while dogs with milder lameness did not. This suggests that kinetic analysis is most valuable in quantifying moderate to severe lameness and in documenting response to treatment over time.

Static Examination and Palpation

The examination begins before the dog is touched. Observe the dog standing squarely on all four limbs. Note the distribution of weight, the symmetry of muscle mass over the epaxial, gluteal, quadriceps, and supraspinatus regions, and the position of the paws. A dog shifting weight cranially may be unloading a painful pelvic limb. Muscle atrophy develops within 2 to 3 weeks of persistent lameness, so asymmetry in the standing patient is a reliable indicator of chronicity. Compare paired limbs carefully, subtle atrophy of the vastus medialis or the supraspinatus muscle is often the first objective sign of joint disease.

Palpate the spine and limbs in a consistent order, starting distally and moving proximally, or vice versa, but always the same sequence. Begin with the digits and nail beds, then the metacarpal and metatarsal regions, carpi and tarsi, and progress to the elbow and stifle, then the shoulder and hip. Palpate each joint for effusion, thickening of the joint capsule, crepitus, and periarticular fibrosis. Effusion is best detected in the stifle by ballotting the patellar ligament and in the elbow by palpating the lateral compartment between the lateral epicondyle and the anconeal process. Crepitus indicates cartilage loss or intra-articular pathology but does not localize pain reliably, a joint can be crepitant without being the source of lameness.

Apply firm, focal digital pressure over known sites of pain. These include the origin of the supraspinatus tendon on the supraglenoid tubercle, the biceps tendon within the intertubercular groove, the greater trochanter of the femur, the insertion of the gastrocnemius tendon on the tuber calcanei, and the dorsal aspect of the carpal and tarsal joints. A painful response to focal pressure, such as flinching, turning the head, or vocalisation, is a meaningful finding. However, the absence of a response does not exclude pathology. In a retrospective study of shoulder instability, only 57% of affected shoulders had radiographic degenerative joint disease, and pain was not consistently elicited on manipulation, which underscores the need for sedation or anesthesia when the awake examination is inconclusive Bardet, diagnosis of shoulder instability in dogs and cats.

Joint-Specific Manipulation

Each joint is manipulated through its full range of motion, and the response is compared between limbs. Start with flexion and extension, then add rotational and translational stresses where appropriate. The normal range of motion varies by breed and conformation, so the contralateral limb is the reference standard.

For the shoulder, test flexion, extension, and internal and external rotation. Instability is assessed with the dog in lateral recumbency under sedation or anesthesia. A craniocaudal drawer sign or a mediolateral drawer sign indicates glenohumeral instability, and both should be tested because either may be present alone Bardet, diagnosis of shoulder instability in dogs and cats. The biceps tendon is evaluated by flexing the shoulder while extending the elbow and applying digital pressure over the intertubercular groove, pain on this maneuve suggests bicipital tenosynovitis.

The elbow is examined for effusion, reduced extension, and pain on full flexion or extension. Reduced extension is an early and consistent finding in elbow dysplasia. Compare the range of extension between limbs with a goniometer, a difference of 5 degrees or more is clinically relevant.

The carpus is tested in flexion and extension, and varus and valgus stress is applied to detect collateral ligament injury. The tarsus is tested similarly, with particular attention to the plantar ligaments and the Achilles mechanism. Pain on hyperextension of the tarsus suggests calcaneal tendon injury or intra-articular pathology.

The stifle is examined for cranial and caudal drawer, tibial thrust, and patellar luxation. Cranial drawer is tested with the stifle in slight flexion, and tibial thrust is tested by flexing the hock while the stifle is held in extension. The menisci are assessed indirectly, a palpable or audible click during flexion and extension, or during the tibial thrust test, suggests a meniscal tear. Meniscal release alone, without cruciate injury, produces lameness and medial compartment cartilage pathology within 12 weeks, so a meniscal click should be interpreted as significant even when the cruciate appears stable Luther et al., meniscal release in cruciate ligament intact stifles.

The hip is assessed for pain on extension and external rotation, and for reduced range of motion. Ortolani and Barlow tests are performed under sedation or anesthesia to detect coxofemoral laxity. The Barden test, in which the femur is held vertical and the hip is extended, is a useful alternative in the awake dog.

Sedation and Anesthesia

The awake examination is the first step, but it has limits. Muscle guarding, patient temperament, and pain-induced resistance can mask or mimic joint instability. Sedation with an opioid and a benzodiazepine, or a low-dose alpha-2 agonist, reduces muscle tone while preserving the ability to assess pain responses. General anesthesia is required for a full instability assessment, including drawer tests of the shoulder and hip, because these maneuves require complete muscle relaxation.

The decision to progress from awake to sedated to anesthetised examination is guided by the strength of the clinical suspicion and the consequences of a missed diagnosis. A dog with a chronic forelimb lameness and normal awake findings warrants an anesthetised examination, particularly when shoulder pathology is suspected, because instability signs are recognized under anesthesia using a craniocaudal or mediolateral drawer sign Bardet, diagnosis of shoulder instability in dogs and cats. Conversely, a dog with an obvious cranial drawer sign in the awake state does not require anesthesia for that diagnosis, although anesthesia may still be needed for imaging.

Objective Gait and Force Measurement

Subjective lameness scoring is the standard in clinical practice, but it is insensitive to mild and bilateral lameness. Kinetic gait analysis using a pressure-sensitive walkway or force platform provides objective measures of weight bearing, including peak vertical force, vertical impulse, and symmetry indices. These tools are used in research and in specialty referral practice, and they can detect subclinical lameness that is missed on physical examination. In a study of English Bulldogs, all dogs had radiographic evidence of hip dysplasia, yet none showed pain on manipulation of the hips, and the mean hind limb symmetry index was 19.8%, compared with a range of 0.3% to 9.6% in dogs free from orthopedic disease Aristizabal Escobar et al., kinetic gait analysis in English Bulldogs. This finding illustrates that a normal gait examination does not exclude significant joint pathology.

Force platform analysis is also used to monitor response to treatment. In dogs undergoing total hip replacement, ground reaction forces in the treated limb were significantly lower than in the untreated limb before surgery, and this difference persisted through the first postoperative month. By 3 to 6 months, the treated limb forces increased to the point where no significant difference between limbs remained Budsberg et al., ground reaction forces in dogs undergoing unilateral total hip replacement. Serial kinetic measurements therefore provide a quantitative basis for decisions about rehabilitation progression and return to function.

Pressure-sensitive walkways are more widely available than force platforms and are practical in a clinical setting. They measure vertical forces and stance duration but not craniocaudal forces, so they are best suited to detecting weight-bearing asymmetry instead of braking or propulsion deficits. The choice of system depends on the clinical question. A force platform is required for a full biomechanical assessment, while a pressure walkway is sufficient for screening and serial monitoring.

Documentation and Localization Logic

Document every finding in a standardized format. Record the lameness grade at walk and trot, the affected limb or limbs, the response to each manipulation, and the results of any objective gait analysis. Use a body map diagram to mark the location of pain, effusion, crepitus, and reduced range of motion. This record serves as the baseline for monitoring response to treatment and for communication with referral colleagues.

The localization logic proceeds from the gait analysis to the static examination to the joint-specific manipulation. A forelimb lameness that is worse at a trot than at a walk, with reduced elbow extension and pain on full flexion, localizes to the elbow. A hind limb lameness with a shortened stance phase, reduced hip extension, and a positive Barden test localizes to the hip. When findings are conflicting, the anesthetised examination and imaging are the next steps.

The most common pitfall is stopping the examination after identifying one abnormality. A dog with a cranial cruciate rupture may also have contralateral stifle disease, hip dysplasia, or elbow pathology. The examination must be bilateral and systematic, and the clinician must resist the temptation to attribute all findings to the most obvious lesion.

Recognized Complications and Failure Modes

Orthopedic assessment can mislead when examination findings are interpreted without reference to the patient's signalment, history, and gait pattern. The most common failure is localizing lameness to the wrong limb. This occurs when a subtle contralateral lameness is overshadowed by a more obvious ipsilateral one, or when bilateral disease produces a symmetrical gait abnormality that is mistaken for a normal gait. The discriminating check is to compare stance duration and weight distribution between limbs during walking and trotting, and to repeat the examination after a period of rest or exercise, as lameness intensity often changes with activity.

A second failure mode is attributing lameness to a joint when the source is muscular, tendinous, or neurologic. Dogs with cervical or lumbosacral disease may present with thoracic or pelvic limb lameness that mimics orthopedic pain. The distinguishing feature is that neurologic lameness typically shows proprioceptive deficits, muscle atrophy patterns that do not match a single joint, and pain on spinal palpation instead of on joint manipulation. A thorough neurologic examination, including postural reactions and spinal reflexes, should precede or accompany the orthopedic examination in any dog with an unclear localization.

A third failure mode is over-reliance on a single finding. For example, a positive cranial drawer sign confirms cranial cruciate ligament rupture, but the absence of a drawer sign does not exclude partial or chronic tears, particularly in dogs with periarticular fibrosis. Similarly, the absence of pain on hip extension does not rule out hip dysplasia, as demonstrated in a study of English Bulldogs where all dogs had radiographic evidence of hip dysplasia despite showing no signs of pain or discomfort upon manipulation of the hip joints. The corrective action is to integrate multiple findings, including gait analysis, muscle atrophy assessment, and imaging, before reaching a diagnosis.

Common Errors and Corrective Actions

Less experienced clinicians often perform the orthopedic examination in a fixed order without adapting to the patient's response. This can cause them to miss subtle signs or to provoke defensive behavior that confounds the assessment. The corrective action is to observe the dog at rest and during gait before any handling, then to palpate the non-painful limbs first, and to manipulate the suspected painful joint last. This sequence builds trust and prevents the dog from anticipating pain.

Another common error is failing to account for the effect of sedation on joint stability testing. Sedation reduces muscle guarding, which can make a joint appear more unstable than it is in the conscious patient. Conversely, some instability tests, such as the shoulder drawer sign, may only be detectable under anesthesia, as described in a retrospective study of shoulder instability in dogs where signs of instability were recognized under anesthesia using a craniocaudal or mediolateral drawer sign. The corrective action is to document whether the examination was performed conscious, sedated, or anesthetised, and to interpret joint stability findings accordingly.

Students frequently confuse the terms "pain on palpation" with "pain on manipulation." Pain on direct palpation of a bone or joint capsule suggests periarticular or osseous pathology, while pain on manipulation, such as flexion, extension, or rotation, suggests intra-articular or ligamentous pathology. The corrective action is to palpate the bone shaft separately from the joint, and to test each range of motion direction individually, noting which specific movement reproduces the pain.

Limitations of Current Evidence

The evidence base for many orthopedic examination techniques is limited. Subjective lameness scoring, while widely used, has poor inter-observer reliability. Objective gait analysis using force platforms or pressure-sensitive walkways provides more reproducible data, but these tools are not universally available in practice. A study of dogs undergoing total hip replacement demonstrated that ground reaction forces were significantly lower in the affected limb before surgery and that these differences resolved over 3 to 6 months after surgery, but the study also noted that subjective lameness scoring did not always correlate with objective force measurements. This discrepancy suggests that subjective scoring may miss subtle lameness that objective measures detect.

Expert opinion still differs on the clinical significance of certain findings. For example, the role of meniscal release in cruciate ligament surgery remains debated. A study in dogs with intact cruciate ligaments showed that meniscal release alone was associated with lameness, articular cartilage pathology, and degenerative joint disease 12 weeks postoperatively. This finding has led some surgeons to avoid routine meniscal release, while others continue to perform it to prevent future meniscal injury. The evidence does not yet provide a definitive answer, and the decision should be made on a case-by-case basis.

The use of regenerative therapies, such as mesenchymal stem cells or platelet-rich plasma, for osteoarthritis is another area where evidence is evolving. A feasibility study using equine chondrogenic induced mesenchymal stem cells in dogs with elbow osteoarthritis found owner-reported improvements in pain and lameness, but no significant differences in orthopedic examination parameters or radiographic findings. A separate study of adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction and platelet-rich plasma in dogs with hip osteoarthritis found improvements in owner-assessed pain scores but limited objective gait changes. These findings highlight the need for larger, controlled studies before these therapies can be recommended as standard care.

Referral, Specialist Consultation, and Reporting

Referral to a veterinary orthopedic specialist is warranted when the lameness cannot be localized despite a thorough examination, when the suspected condition requires advanced imaging such as CT or MRI, or when surgical intervention is being considered. Specialist consultation is also appropriate when the clinician is uncertain about the significance of a finding, such as a subtle joint instability or an equivocal radiographic change. The American College of Veterinary Surgeons provides resources for identifying surgical conditions and expected outcomes, which can help guide referral decisions.

Laboratory involvement is indicated when infectious, inflammatory, or neoplastic causes of lameness are suspected. Synovial fluid analysis, including cytology and culture, can differentiate septic arthritis from immune-mediated polyarthritis. Hematology and serum biochemistry may reveal systemic disease that manifests as lameness. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides peer-reviewed guidance on the interpretation of these laboratory findings.

Regulatory reporting is rarely required for orthopedic conditions in dogs, but it may be necessary in specific circumstances. If a lameness is suspected to result from a notifiable disease, such as certain zoonotic or trade-related conditions, the clinician should consult the relevant animal health authority. The World Organization for Animal Health maintains terrestrial animal health standards that define notifiable diseases and reporting obligations. In most jurisdictions, however, routine orthopedic conditions do not require regulatory reporting, and the clinician's primary obligation is to the patient and client.

Frequently Asked Questions

How do I localize lameness when the patient will not bear weight or cooperate with gait assessment?

When weight-bearing gait analysis is impossible, rely on the static examination and joint-specific manipulation performed in a quiet room with the dog supported. Observe the dog from a distance before handling, noting posture, muscle atrophy, and any consistent limb elevation. Palpate each joint systematically, comparing symmetry between limbs. Apply flexion, extension, and rotational stress to each joint individually, watching for withdrawal, vocalisation, or muscle splinting. If the dog remains uncooperative, proceed to sedation or anesthesia for a complete examination, as muscle guarding often masks instability. Radiographs under sedation can reveal effusion, osteophytes, or fracture lines that confirm the suspected location. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides guidance on examination techniques when patient compliance is limited.

What is the minimum equipment needed for a reliable orthopedic examination?

A stadiometer or tape measure, goniometer, and a non-slip surface are the essential tools. The stadiometer quantifies hindlimb weight distribution during standing examination, which often reveals subtle lameness before gait analysis. A goniometer provides objective joint range of motion measurements, useful for monitoring progression or response to treatment. The non-slip surface prevents compensatory gait changes that occur on slippery floors. No force plate or pressure walkway is required for routine localization, these instruments add objective data but do not replace a thorough manual examination. When force measurement is unavailable, subjective lameness scoring combined with serial goniometry and owner questionnaires provides adequate monitoring for most cases. The American College of Veterinary Surgeons resources describe standard examination protocols that require only basic equipment.

How do I distinguish between hip and stifle lameness when both joints are abnormal?

Start with the gait: hip lameness often shows a shortened cranial phase with the foot placed closer to the midline, while stifle lameness typically shows a reduced stance phase with the limb held in slight flexion. Perform the Ortolani and Barden tests for hip laxity, then assess stifle stability with cranial drawer and tibial compression tests. If both joints are positive, apply localizing blocks. Intra-articular anesthesia of the stifle followed by reassessment is the most reliable method. If lameness persists after stifle blockade, the hip is the primary source. Radiographs of both joints are mandatory, but radiographic changes do not always correlate with clinical significance. Kinetic gait analysis can quantify asymmetry, but it does not identify which joint is painful. The prospective evaluation of ground reaction forces in dogs undergoing total hip replacement demonstrates that force plate data track clinical improvement but require clinical correlation for localization.

What should I record in the medical record to ensure the examination is reproducible?

Record the lameness score using a defined scale, such as the 0 to 5 ordinal system, at walk and trot on both hard and soft surfaces. Document the stance phase weight distribution as a percentage for each limb. Record goniometry values for each joint in degrees, noting flexion and extension separately. Describe any muscle atrophy using a grading scale and measure limb circumference at a defined anatomical landmark. Document the response to each manipulation test as negative, mild, moderate, or severe, with the specific reaction observed. Note the patient's behavior during examination, including sedation level and cooperation. Serial examinations are only comparable if the same observer uses the same protocol and recording format. The AVMA practice resources emphasize standardized documentation for clinical decision-making and medicolegal protection.

How do I explain the examination findings and localization to an owner who expects a definitive diagnosis?

Frame the explanation around what the examination has ruled out and what remains possible. State the affected limb and the suspected joint or region, then explain that imaging or arthrocentesis may be needed to confirm the specific diagnosis. Use a simple analogy, such as comparing joint pain to a worn hinge that produces noise and stiffness, but avoid oversimplifying complex conditions. Explain that sedation may be required for a complete examination because muscle tension can hide instability. Provide a clear plan for the next diagnostic step and what each test will add. Acknowledge that some conditions, such as shoulder instability, may only be confirmed under anesthesia, as described in the retrospective study of shoulder instability diagnosis. Set realistic expectations about treatment outcomes and the need for serial rechecks.

How does the orthopedic examination differ in chondrodystrophic or brachycephalic breeds?

Breed conformation alters normal joint angles and gait patterns, which can confound interpretation. English Bulldogs, for example, have a characteriztic wide-based stance and rolling gait that may mask or mimic hip pain. Kinetic gait analysis in English Bulldogs showed that dogs with radiographic hip dysplasia can have normal vertical forces and stance times, yet demonstrate high hindlimb symmetry indices, indicating subclinical lameness. For these breeds, rely more on joint manipulation under sedation and radiographic findings than on gait observation alone. Goniometric reference ranges differ from those of non-chondrodystrophic breeds, so compare affected limbs against the contralateral limb instead of published norms. Document any breed-specific conformational features in the record to avoid misinterpreting them as pathologic on subsequent examinations.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Timing and Selection
• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle
• Fracture Healing Assessment: Radiographic and Clinical Evaluation

References and Further Reading

• A Feasibility Study on the Use of Equine Chondrogenic Induced Mesenchymal Stem Cells as a Treatment for Natural Occurring Osteoarthritis in Dogs.. 2019.
• Kinetic gait analysis in English Bulldogs.. 2017.
• Prospective evaluation of ground reaction forces in dogs undergoing unilateral total hip replacement.. 1996.
• Meniscal release in cruciate ligament intact stifles causes lameness and medial compartment cartilage pathology in dogs 12 weeks postoperatively.. 2009.
• Diagnosis of shoulder instability in dogs and cats: a retrospective study.. 1998.
• Effects of administration of adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction and platelet-rich plasma to dogs with osteoarthritis of the hip joints.. 2016.
• American College of Veterinary Surgeons Animal Health Resources. American College of Veterinary Surgeons.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

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This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.