Diagnostic Approach to Acute Abdomen in Dogs and Cats

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• The acute abdomen in dogs and cats is a time-sensitive emergency requiring rapid diagnostic triage, prioritizing life-threatening conditions such as intestinal perforation, mesenteric volvulus, or septic peritonitis. Diagnostic efficiency, focusing on tests that alter management or prognosis, is paramount.
• Initial stabilization with intravenous fluids and analgesia is critical for cardiovascularly unstable or severely painful patients before advanced diagnostics. Surgical intervention is indicated for peritonitis, pneumoperitoneum, strangulating obstruction, or uncontrolled hemorrhage.
• Survey radiography is the first-line imaging modality to identify pneumoperitoneum, obstruction patterns, and organ displacement, while abdominal ultrasound is invaluable for assessing peritoneal fluid, intestinal wall integrity, and pancreatic pathology.
• Peritoneal fluid analysis, including cytology and lactate measurement, is crucial for differentiating septic from non-septic effusions. Elevated lactate despite fluid resuscitation indicates ongoing tissue ischemia and warrants re-evaluation or surgical intervention.
• Serial physical examinations are the most valuable monitoring tool, with worsening pain, progressive lethargy, or deteriorating perfusion necessitating repeat examinations every 2-4 hours and potentially immediate surgical exploration, overriding equivocal imaging findings.
• Advanced imaging like contrast-enhanced CT is reserved for equivocal cases or when detailed anatomical information is required, complementing ultrasound which excels in real-time assessment of perfusion and motility.

The acute abdomen represents one of the most time-sensitive presentations in small animal practice. Rapid deterioration is the rule instead of the exception, and the diagnostic window for conditions such as intestinal perforation, mesenteric volvulus, or septic peritonitis is measured in hours. This article provides a structured diagnostic algorithm for the practising veterinarian, prioritizing life-threatening causes and guiding efficient test selection. The approach integrates signalment, physical examination findings, targeted laboratory testing, and sequential imaging to distinguish surgical from medical disease with the fewest possible interventions.

The clinical question this article answers is direct: how does the clinician move from a non-specific presentation of abdominal pain to a confident decision for surgery, medical therapy, or further diagnostic testing? The framework presented here is built on the principle that diagnostic efficiency, not diagnostic completeness, determines outcome. Every test selected must either change management, refine prognosis, or identify a complication that alters the treatment plan. Tests that merely confirm what is already known, or that cannot influence the surgical decision, are deferred until the patient is stabilized.

At a Glance

Pathophysiology of the Acute Abdomen

The acute abdomen is a clinical syndrome, not a single disease. The final common pathway involves peritoneal irritation, visceral distension, ischemia, or inflammation, each generating pain through distinct mechanisms. Visceral pain arises from distension or spasm of hollow organs and is referred, poorly localized, and often perceived as dull or cramping. Parietal pain results from peritoneal inflammation and is sharp, well-localized, and exacerbated by palpation or movement. Referred pain, mediated through shared spinal segments, complicates localization in small animals, particularly in cats, where signs may be subtle.

The peritoneal cavity responds to insult in a stereotyped fashion. Mast cell degranulation, macrophage activation, and cytokine release produce vasodilation, increased capillary permeability, and neutrophil chemotaxis. Fibrin deposition seals perforations but also creates adhesions. Fluid shifts into the peritoneal space can be substantial, and sequestration of protein and fluid into the third space contributes to hypovolemia. In septic peritonitis, bacterial proliferation and endotoxin release amplify this response, producing systemic inflammatory response syndrome and, ultimately, multi-organ dysfunction. The gut microbiome plays an active role in this progression, with dysbiosis contributing to intestinal barrier disruption and bacterial translocation in conditions such as acute pancreatitis The Interaction of Microbiome and Pancreas in Acute Pancreatitis.

Differential Diagnosis by Organ System

Gastrointestinal Causes

Gastric dilatation-volvulus, foreign body obstruction, intussusception, and necrotising enteritis are the principal surgical gastrointestinal emergencies. Medical causes include gastroenteritis, parasitism, and dietary indiscretion. The distinction between obstruction and non-obstructive ileus is a central diagnostic challenge. Obstruction produces progressive distension of loops proximal to the lesion, whereas ileus typically produces diffuse, mild gas distension without a clear transition point.

Pancreatic and Hepatobiliary Causes

Acute pancreatitis is the most common medical cause of the acute abdomen in dogs and is increasingly recognized in cats. The disease spectrum ranges from mild edema to necrotising pancreatitis with peripancreatic fat necrosis and secondary infection. Gallbladder mucocele, cholecystitis, and bile peritonitis represent surgical hepatobiliary emergencies that may mimic pancreatitis clinically.

Urogenital Causes

Ureteral obstruction, pyelonephritis, prostatitis, prostatic abscessation, and uterine rupture or pyometra must be considered in intact or reproductively active animals. Testicular torsion and ovarian remnant syndrome are less common but should not be overlooked in the appropriate signalment.

Vascular and Hemorrhagic Causes

Mesenteric volvulus, splenic torsion, and hemorrhagic pancreatitis produce ischemia or blood loss. Acute mesenteric ischemia is notoriously difficult to diagnose clinically, and plasma biomarkers have shown inconsistent performance in human studies, with D-dimer demonstrating high sensitivity but poor specificity Current status on plasma biomarkers for acute mesenteric ischemia. This limitation applies equally in veterinary patients, and imaging remains the primary diagnostic modality.

Physical Examination and Pain Localization

The physical examination must be systematic and repeatable. Begin with observation of posture and gait. Dogs with cranial abdominal pain adopt a prayer position. Cats with abdominal pain may be tachypnoeic, withdrawn, or aggressive, and the absence of overt pain behavior does not exclude significant disease. Abdominal palpation should proceed from the cranial to the caudal abdomen, with attention to organomegaly, mass lesions, fluid waves, and pain localization. Deep palpation is reserved for the final portion of the examination, as it may induce guarding that obscures subsequent findings.

Pain localization guides the differential list. Cranial abdominal pain suggests gastric, pancreatic, or hepatobiliary disease. Mid-abdominal pain is typical of intestinal pathology. Caudal abdominal pain raises suspicion for urogenital or colonic disease. Diffuse pain with generalized guarding suggests peritonitis. Rectal examination is mandatory in all patients with suspected caudal abdominal or colonic disease, and in any patient where pelvic trauma or prostatic disease is possible.

Diagnostic Imaging Strategy

Survey radiography remains the appropriate first imaging modality in most patients. Three views, right lateral, left lateral, and ventrodorsal, are obtained when the patient is stable enough to permit positioning. Radiography identifies pneumoperitoneum, intestinal obstruction patterns, organ displacement, and radiopaque foreign bodies. The sensitivity of radiography for peritonitis is limited, however, and normal radiographs do not exclude surgical disease.

Ultrasonography is the most valuable single imaging modality for the acute abdomen. It provides real-time assessment of peritoneal fluid, intestinal wall thickness and layering, motility, pancreatic appearance, and biliary tract integrity. The enhanced peritoneal stripe sign, described as a specific sonographic indicator of pneumoperitoneum, demonstrates high sensitivity and specificity in human patients with acute abdominal pain Sonographic diagnosis of pneumoperitoneum using the 'enhancement of the peritoneal stripe sign'. This sign, which appears as a hyperechoic line with distal reverberation artefact deep to the peritoneal surface, is readily transferable to small animal patients.

Contrast-enhanced multi-detector CT provides superior sensitivity for pneumoperitoneum, fat stranding, and lesion characterization compared with radiography and B-mode ultrasound. In a prospective study of dogs with acute abdominal signs, CT identified fat stranding in cases of gastric neoplasia with perforation, pancreatitis, and small intestinal foreign body, and ultrasound underestimated the size and number of specific lesions when compared with CT Comparison between survey radiography, B-mode ultrasonography, contrast-enhanced ultrasonography and contrast-enhanced multi-detector computed tomography findings in dogs with acute abdominal signs. The same study found that contrast-enhanced ultrasound detected bowel and pancreatic perfusion deficits that CT failed to identify, suggesting that the two modalities are complementary instead of interchangeable. CT is reserved for hemodynamically stable patients in whom the diagnosis remains unclear after radiography and ultrasound, or when the surgical plan requires precise anatomical information.

Initial Resuscitation and Triage

The diagnostic workup proceeds in parallel with stabilization. A patient that is collapsed, hypothermic, or poorly perfused cannot tolerate extensive imaging before fluid resuscitation and analgesic provision. Establish intravenous access, begin isotonic crystalloid therapy, and reassess perfusion parameters before moving to advanced diagnostics.

Triage categories guide the pace of investigation:

Serial re-examination is the single most valuable monitoring tool. A patient whose pain escalates despite opioid analgesia, whose heart rate rises, or whose abdominal palpation becomes more guarded has changed diagnostic category. Document vital parameters, pain scores, and abdominal examination findings at fixed intervals, typically every 2 to 4 hours, and record the trend instead of isolated values.

Point-of-Care Ultrasound in the Acute Abdomen

Focused abdominal sonography for trauma and triage protocols, adapted from human emergency medicine, provide rapid answers to specific questions: is free fluid present, is the bladder intact, are intestinal loops distended, is there a visible mass. The examination is goal-directed and should not be expanded into a full abdominal ultrasound until the patient is stable.

The enhanced peritoneal stripe sign deserves specific attention. This sonographic finding, described as a hyperechoic line with distal reverberation artefact at the peritoneal interface, has shown high sensitivity and specificity for pneumoperitoneum in human patients presenting with acute abdominal pain, as reported in a prospective study of 600 patients by Asrani. The sign is positive when the peritoneal stripe appears brighter than the adjacent bowel wall and shows ring-down or reverberation artefacts. In dogs and cats, the same physics apply, and the sign should be sought in the right cranial abdomen where free gas accumulates in dorsal recumbency.

Free fluid volume and character guide the next step. Anechoic fluid in small volume may accompany pancreatitis or cystitis. Turbulent, echogenic fluid with internal septation suggests peritonitis or hemorrhage. When free fluid is identified, ultrasound-guided abdominocentesis is safer and more targeted than blind centesis, particularly in a tense, painful abdomen.

Laboratory Testing and Biomarker Interpretation

Baseline laboratory data should include packed cell volume, total solids, blood glucose, lactate, and a biochemistry panel with electrolytes. A complete blood count and serum chemistry provide context but rarely change the immediate surgical decision. The exception is the patient with suspected sepsis, where leukogram changes, hypoglycemia, and metabolic acidosis support the diagnosis.

Lactate is the most useful serial biomarker. A rising lactate despite fluid resuscitation indicates ongoing tissue ischemia or hypoperfusion. A falling lactate suggests adequate perfusion and supports continued medical management. Interpret lactate in context: a patient with strangulating intestinal disease may have normal lactate early in the course, and a patient with severe vomiting and hypovolemia may have elevated lactate from dehydration alone.

Plasma biomarkers for acute mesenteric ischemia remain investigational. A review of the literature by Acosta and Nilsson identified D-dimer as the most consistently sensitive early marker in human patients, but specificity was low, and other markers including intestinal fatty acid binding protein and D-lactate showed conflicting results across studies. No plasma biomarker currently replaces imaging or surgical exploration in veterinary patients with suspected intestinal ischemia. Their role may grow as point-of-care assays become available, but the practising clinician should not delay surgical decision-making while awaiting biomarker results.

Pancreatic lipase immunoreactivity supports a diagnosis of pancreatitis but does not exclude surgical disease. A patient with confirmed pancreatitis can still have a concurrent intestinal foreign body or biliary obstruction. The interaction between gut microbiota and pancreatic inflammation, reviewed by Zhang and colleagues, highlights that intestinal barrier disruption and bacterial translocation contribute to pancreatitis severity, which means gastrointestinal signs may dominate the clinical picture.

Advanced Imaging Selection

The choice between computed tomography and ultrasonography depends on the suspected disease, patient stability, and equipment availability. Survey radiography remains a reasonable first imaging step in stable patients, particularly for detecting intestinal obstruction patterns, organomegaly, and radiopaque foreign bodies, but its sensitivity for subtle lesions is limited.

A prospective comparison of imaging modalities in dogs with acute abdominal signs by Shanaman and colleagues found that contrast-enhanced multi-detector CT detected fat stranding in cases including gastric neoplasia with perforation, pancreatitis, and small intestinal foreign body. Ultrasound underestimated the size and number of specific lesions when compared with CT. However, contrast-enhanced ultrasound identified bowel and pancreatic perfusion deficits that CT failed to detect. Accuracy for differentiating surgical from non-surgical conditions was high for all modalities.

These findings support a practical approach. CT is preferred when the differential list includes retroperitoneal disease, deep-seated masses, or when ultrasound findings are equivocal. CT also provides superior surgical planning information, including the extent of peritoneal contamination and the location of perforations. Ultrasound is preferred for real-time assessment of intestinal motility, perfusion, and guided sampling. The two modalities are complementary instead of competing.

Decision Points and Surgical Triggers

The decision to proceed to surgery rests on integrating examination findings, imaging results, and response to treatment. No single test is decisive in all cases. The following findings strongly support surgical intervention:

• Progressive pain despite appropriate analgesia
• Free gas on imaging, indicating gastrointestinal perforation
• Increasing volume or changing character of peritoneal fluid
• Intestinal loops that remain distended and non-motile on serial ultrasound
• Deteriorating perfusion parameters despite fluid resuscitation
• Cytological evidence of septic peritonitis

Equine studies have shown that distended, non-motile small intestinal loops are associated with strangulating obstruction, and increased free peritoneal fluid with thickened loops correlates with small intestinal disease, as reported by Beccati and colleagues. While these findings come from horses, the same ultrasonographic principles apply to dogs and cats with acute abdomen.

The patient that improves with analgesia, fluid therapy, and antiemetics can be monitored medically with serial examinations. The patient that fails to improve within 4 to 6 hours, or that deteriorates at any point, requires surgical exploration. This time frame is a guide, not a rule. A patient with confirmed septic peritonitis should go to surgery immediately, not after a trial of medical therapy.

Documentation should record the indication for surgery, the imaging findings that supported the decision, and the time from presentation to surgical decision. This information supports postoperative review and quality improvement.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

The acute abdomen deteriorates along predictable pathways. Hypovolemia from third-space fluid loss, endotoxaemia from compromised mucosal barriers, and hypoperfusion from distributive shock compound the primary lesion. Serial reassessment detects these cascades before they become irreversible. Recheck perfusion parameters, body weight, abdominal girth, and lactate every two to four hours during the initial stabilization period. A rising lactate with normalizing perfusion indices suggests ongoing tissue ischemia instead of resolved hypovolemia.

Peritonitis represents the most consequential complication. Early septic peritonitis may present with only mild fever, subtle tachycardia, and localized pain. Serial abdominal palpation and repeated point-of-care ultrasound looking for free fluid, echogenic peritoneal strands, or bowel wall thickening provide the earliest objective evidence. Cytology of free fluid remains the discriminating test, intracellular bacteria or degenerate neutrophils confirm the diagnosis. The enhanced peritoneal stripe sign on ultrasound offers a rapid, non-invasive indicator of pneumoperitoneum when perforation is suspected, with high sensitivity in human emergency populations, though its performance in veterinary patients is less thoroughly validated.

Pancreatic necrosis and secondary infection complicate severe acute pancreatitis. The gut-pancreas axis literature describes how microbial dysbiosis, intestinal barrier disruption, and bacterial translocation drive progression from local inflammation to sepsis. Clinically, this means a pancreatitis patient who deteriorates after 48 to 72 hours of supportive care warrants repeat imaging and fluid analysis, not simply more aggressive analgesia. Worsening leukopaenia, hypoglycemia, or rising creatinine out of proportion to hydration status should prompt reconsideration of the working diagnosis.

Common Diagnostic Errors and Corrective Actions

The most common error is premature diagnostic closure. A patient with a palpable abdominal mass, fever, and neutrophilia receives a presumptive splenic mass diagnosis, and the concurrent intestinal perforation is missed. The corrective action is systematic: every acute abdomen patient receives a complete examination of all four abdominal quadrants on ultrasound, also the region of maximal pain. The comparative imaging study in dogs with acute abdominal signs demonstrated that ultrasound underestimated the size and number of specific lesions when compared with contrast-enhanced CT, particularly for pancreatic pathology and small intestinal lesions. When ultrasound findings do not fully explain the clinical picture, advanced imaging is indicated instead of repeated ultrasound.

A second common error involves over-reliance on a single normal laboratory value. The plasma biomarker literature for acute mesenteric ischemia shows that D-dimer has high sensitivity but poor specificity, while intestinal fatty acid binding protein and D-lactate show conflicting results across studies. No single biomarker excludes mesenteric ischemia. The clinician must integrate serial physical examinations, imaging, and laboratory trends instead of seeking a definitive blood test.

Limitations of Current Evidence

The veterinary evidence base for acute abdomen diagnosis rests heavily on retrospective case series and small prospective cohorts. The comparative imaging study cited above enrolled only nineteen dogs, which limits the precision of its accuracy estimates. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound remains in its infancy for veterinary acute abdomen evaluation, and its role relative to CT is not yet defined. The equine ultrasonographic correlation study provides useful parallels for small animal practice, particularly the association between distended, non-motile small intestinal loops and strangulating obstruction, but direct extrapolation across species requires caution.

Expert opinion still differs on several points. The threshold for exploratory laparotomy in a stable patient with equivocal imaging findings remains contested. Some surgeons advocate early surgical exploration when peritonitis is suspected, while others prefer a period of medical stabilization and repeat imaging. The role of CT in the routine acute abdomen workup is similarly debated, with availability, cost, and anesthetic risk cited as barriers in general practice. Machine learning approaches to surgical decision-making, as explored in equine colic prediction models, show promise but have not been validated in small animal populations.

Referral, Consultation, and Reporting

Referral to a specialty center is indicated when the patient requires capabilities beyond the practice setting: continuous monitoring, advanced imaging, interventional radiology, or surgical expertise. Specific triggers include suspected mesenteric volvulus, confirmed septic peritonitis requiring open abdominal drainage, hemorrhagic effusion of unclear origin, and deteriorating perfusion despite appropriate resuscitation. Specialist surgical resources describe expected outcomes and perioperative considerations that inform the referral discussion with owners.

Laboratory involvement extends beyond routine hematology and biochemistry. Coagulation panels, blood gas analysis with lactate, and serial electrolyte monitoring are essential for guiding resuscitation. Blood culture is indicated in febrile patients with suspected bacteremia before antimicrobial administration. Cytology of peritoneal fluid should be performed by a clinical pathologist when in-house interpretation is uncertain, particularly for distinguishing neoplastic from inflammatory effusions.

Regulatory reporting applies to specific diagnoses. Suspected foreign animal diseases presenting as acute abdomen, such as anthrax in herbivores, require notification to the relevant animal health authority. International animal health standards and professional practice resources outline the reporting obligations that vary by jurisdiction. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on zoonotic considerations relevant to acute abdominal presentations. Clinicians should confirm local requirements instead of assume a universal standard.

Frequently Asked Questions

How Do I Choose Between Radiography and Ultrasound When Only One Modality Is Available?

When forced to select a single imaging test, ultrasonography generally provides more diagnostic information for most acute abdominal presentations, particularly for pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and intestinal wall assessment. Survey radiography retains a specific advantage for detecting pneumoperitoneum and identifying radiopaque foreign bodies. In a comparative study of dogs with acute abdominal signs, all tested modalities achieved high accuracy for differentiating surgical from non-surgical conditions, but ultrasound underestimated the size and number of specific lesions when compared with contrast-enhanced CT. If ultrasound is your only option, incorporate the enhanced peritoneal stripe sign, a sonographic finding with high reported sensitivity for pneumoperitoneum, into your systematic scan to avoid missing perforation.

What Should I Do When Advanced Imaging Is Unavailable or Financially Declined?

A structured physical examination, serial reassessment, and basic laboratory data can support a defensible surgical decision in most cases. Re-examine the patient at two to four hour intervals, recording pain scores, heart rate, perfusion parameters, and abdominal palpation findings. Worsening pain, progressive tachycardia, or deteriorating perfusion despite analgesia and fluid therapy are surgical triggers independent of imaging. Point-of-care ultrasound, even with a single low-frequency probe, can identify free fluid, intestinal distension, and reduced motility. Document your reasoning, the owner's informed declination of advanced diagnostics, and the monitoring plan in the medical record. Referral remains appropriate when clinical progression outpaces your diagnostic capacity.

How Does the Diagnostic Approach Differ in Cats Compared With Dogs?

Cats present unique challenges in pain recognition and disease spectrum. Feline patients with acute abdomen frequently show lethargy, anorexia, and hiding instead of overt vocalisation. Hepatic lipidosis, biliary mucocoeles, and gastrointestinal lymphoma enter the differential list more prominently than in dogs. Pancreatitis in cats is often concurrent with inflammatory bowel disease and cholangitis, the so-called triaditis complex, so a normal pancreatic lipase does not exclude clinically significant disease. Cats are also more prone to gastrointestinal foreign bodies with linear configurations. Thoracic radiographs before abdominal imaging are advisable in dyspnoeic cats, as pleural effusion or pulmonary pathology may mimic or accompany abdominal disease. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific guidance on these presentations.

How Should I Document the Acute Abdomen Workup for Medicolegal Protection?

Record the time of presentation, serial vital parameters, pain scores using a validated scale, and the response to each analgesic intervention. Document which differentials were considered and why specific tests were selected or declined. If an owner declines a recommended diagnostic or surgical procedure, record the discussion, the owner's stated reason, and the alternatives offered. Include photographs or video of visible abnormalities when permitted. Note the basis for your surgical decision, whether imaging findings, laboratory results, or clinical progression. The American Veterinary Medical Association practice resources offer guidance on medical record standards and client communication expectations.

Can Biomarkers Replace Imaging for Diagnosing Mesenteric Ischemia?

No single plasma biomarker currently provides sufficient diagnostic accuracy to confirm or exclude mesenteric ischemia. A review of candidate markers found D-dimer to be the most consistently sensitive early indicator, but its specificity was low, limiting clinical utility. Intestinal fatty acid binding protein and D-lactate showed promise in some studies but produced conflicting results across different cut-off values. Biomarkers should therefore function as adjuncts to imaging and clinical assessment, not substitutes. A negative D-dimer may help rule out significant ischemia in the right clinical context, but a positive result demands imaging confirmation. Serial measurement may prove more useful than a single value, though standardized protocols remain lacking.

How Do I Explain the Diagnostic Plan to a Distressed Owner?

Structure the conversation around three questions the owner can understand: Is this life-threatening now, what is causing it, and does the patient need surgery? Explain that some causes resolve with medical therapy while others require immediate surgery, and that the diagnostic steps are designed to distinguish these two paths. Be explicit about cost estimates for each tier of investigation and the likelihood that additional tests may become necessary. Avoid offering false reassurance about a specific diagnosis before imaging is complete. If referral is an option, present it early instead of after exhausting your local resources. The American College of Veterinary Surgeons resources provide owner-facing summaries of common surgical conditions that can support these discussions.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Timing and Selection
• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle
• Fracture Healing Assessment: Radiographic and Clinical Evaluation

References and Further Reading

• Comparison between survey radiography, B-mode ultrasonography, contrast-enhanced ultrasonography and contrast-enhanced multi-detector computed tomography findings in dogs with acute abdominal signs.. 2013.
• Current status on plasma biomarkers for acute mesenteric ischemia.. 2012.
• The Interaction of Microbiome and Pancreas in Acute Pancreatitis.. 2023.
• Using Artificial Intelligence to Predict Survivability Likelihood and Need for Surgery in Horses Presented With Acute Abdomen (Colic).. 2020.
• Sonographic diagnosis of pneumoperitoneum using the 'enhancement of the peritoneal stripe sign.' A prospective study.. 2007.
• Is there a statistical correlation between ultrasonographic findings and definitive diagnosis in horses with acute abdominal pain?. 2011.
• American College of Veterinary Surgeons Animal Health Resources. American College of Veterinary Surgeons.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.
• American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources. American Veterinary Medical Association.

Related Articles

• Surgical Approaches to the Abdomen: Cellotomy and Exposure
• Surgical Risk Stratification in Geriatric Dogs and Cats
• Orthopedic Examination and Lameness Localization in Dogs
• Surgical Approaches to the Carpus and Tarsus
• Surgical Approaches to the Femur and Stifle

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.