Paralytic Ileus: Causes and Management in Pets

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-09-20

Paralytic ileus is a functional failure of intestinal propulsion. The bowel is physically open, yet the muscular and nervous machinery that moves contents forward has stopped working. This is the single most important fact for a pet owner to understand, because paralytic ileus and mechanical obstruction can look almost identical on the outside while demanding opposite treatments. Mechanical obstruction is a surgical emergency. Paralytic ileus is usually a medical problem managed with supportive care, electrolyte correction, and treatment of the underlying disease.

This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment.

Owner Triage Summary

If your pet is vomiting repeatedly, has a painful or distended abdomen, is drooling, or has not passed stool, treat it as an emergency and go to a veterinarian now. Do not wait to see whether it improves overnight. Do not give food, water, or any human medication unless a veterinarian directs you to.

The distinction between a blocked intestine and a paralyzed intestine cannot be made at home. It requires physical examination, blood work, and imaging. A veterinarian can usually narrow the diagnosis within hours, and that speed matters because a mechanical obstruction can compromise blood supply to the bowel and become fatal.

At a Glance: Paralytic Ileus Versus Mechanical Obstruction

The table above is a simplification. Many patients have both problems at once, and a veterinarian will interpret findings in context.

What Paralytic Ileus Actually Is

Ileus is defined as the absence of propulsive aboral movement of gastrointestinal contents, regardless of the underlying pathophysiology [1]. In plain terms, aboral means "away from the mouth," so ileus means gut contents are not being pushed downstream. The word "paralytic" specifies that the failure is functional rather than mechanical.

Normal intestinal propulsion depends on a coordinated interaction between the central nervous system, the autonomic nervous system, and the enteric nervous system, along with a long list of humoral and neurochemical signals that must interact correctly [1]. When any major part of that system is disrupted, propulsion fails even though the tube itself is open.

The Pacemakers and Why They Matter

A specialized population of cells called interstitial cells of Cajal acts as the intestinal pacemaker. In a mouse model of postoperative ileus, researchers found that the generation and propagation of pacemaker potentials were disrupted 24 hours after intestinal manipulation, and the networks of these pacemaker cells were visibly disrupted [2]. The same study showed the pacemaker networks recovered by 48 hours, and that an inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitor suppressed the disruption [2]. This is a useful illustration of the core principle: ileus is often a reversible functional and inflammatory state, not permanent structural damage.

The Two Phases of Postoperative Ileus

Postoperative ileus is the best-studied form of paralytic ileus in veterinary medicine. Its pathophysiology has two major components. There is a neurogenic phase, which is then propagated by an inflammatory phase [3].

The neurogenic phase is the immediate, reflex suppression of motility triggered by surgical handling of the bowel. The inflammatory phase follows, driven by activation of intestinal macrophages that release cytokines and nitric oxide, which inhibit intestinal motility. Circulating leukocytes then infiltrate the intestinal wall and add to the cytokine and nitric oxide load, worsening the ileus [4].

This inflammatory cascade has been mapped in considerable detail. In mouse models, intestinal manipulation promotes infiltration of macrophages and neutrophils into the intestinal muscle, increases expression of interleukin-1 beta, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor alpha, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and CXCL2, and delays transit [5]. Blocking the transient receptor potential melastatin 2 channel prevented or reduced these effects, which supports the idea that specific inflammatory signaling pathways drive the dysmotility [5]. Separate work showed that a purinergic P2X7 receptor antagonist reduced macrophage and neutrophil infiltration and improved impaired intestinal transit [6]. A zinc chelator called IPZ-010 similarly inhibited leukocyte infiltration in a postoperative ileus model [7].

The practical takeaway is that ileus is an inflammatory disease of the bowel wall as much as it is a motility disease. That is why anti-inflammatory strategies and gentle tissue handling matter, and why prokinetic drugs alone often disappoint.

Causes of Paralytic Ileus in Pets

The causes list below reflects the mechanisms most consistently described in the veterinary literature. Several can coexist in the same patient.

Postoperative Ileus

Any abdominal surgery that involves manipulating the intestines can trigger ileus. This is the classic setting. In dogs undergoing surgery for gastrointestinal foreign bodies, a retrospective study of 721 dogs found that 199 experienced ileus [8]. The odds of developing postoperative ileus increased by 53 percent for an enterectomy compared with a gastrotomy or enterotomy, and increased by roughly 10 percent for every additional year of age [8]. That study also found no difference in the occurrence of ileus in dogs that received carprofen versus those that did not [8].

In horses, postoperative ileus is a well-recognized and serious complication. Of horses that develop postoperative ileus following small intestinal resection, 37.5 percent do not survive to discharge [3]. Horses that had a strangulating or non-strangulating small intestinal obstruction at surgery are at greater risk of a persistent ileus that is refractory to treatment than horses with large intestinal lesions [9].

Electrolyte Derangements

Hypokalemia and hypocalcemia are both recognized contributors to ileus. Doherty's review of postoperative ileus pathogenesis lists hypocalcemia among the factors contributing to ileus, alongside endotoxemia, intestinal wall edema from excessive fluid therapy, and long abdominal incisions [4]. Correction of hypocalcemia is listed among the strategies to reduce the severity of ileus [4]. Dart and Hodgson emphasize that all horses undergoing celiotomy for an acute abdominal crisis are at risk of ileus and should receive therapy aimed at promoting gastrointestinal function by restoring fluid and electrolyte balance [9].

Electrolytes matter because potassium and calcium are directly involved in smooth muscle contraction and in the electrical signaling that drives peristalsis. When they fall outside a narrow range, the bowel cannot generate effective propulsive waves regardless of how healthy the tissue is.

Pancreatitis

Severe pancreatitis causes regional inflammation that spreads to adjacent bowel and peritoneal surfaces. The resulting inflammatory environment suppresses motility through the same cytokine and nitric oxide pathways described above. A pet with pancreatitis that develops a distended, quiet abdomen should be evaluated for ileus as part of the clinical picture.

Peritonitis

Peritonitis is a potent cause of ileus. Bacterial contamination of the peritoneal cavity triggers systemic and local inflammatory responses that shut down intestinal propulsion. Dart and Hodgson specifically note that adequate analgesia and prevention against peritonitis, bacteremia, and endotoxemia should be provided to horses at risk of ileus [9]. Endotoxemia is separately listed as a contributing factor to ileus in Doherty's review [4].

Opioid Analgesics

Opioid therapy is named in the perioperative care factors implicated in postoperative ileus [3]. Opioids reduce propulsive motility by acting on enteric opioid receptors, which is a predictable pharmacologic effect rather than a complication. This creates a genuine clinical tension, because opioids are also necessary for humane postoperative pain control. Veterinarians manage this by using the lowest effective opioid dose, considering opioid-sparing protocols, and timing prokinetic decisions carefully.

Severe Enteritis

Severe inflammation of the intestinal lining, whether from infectious, dietary, or immune-mediated causes, damages the enteric environment and can suppress motility. The same inflammatory mediators that drive postoperative ileus are at work here.

Other Recognized Causes

The veterinary literature describes additional causes worth knowing. Methamphetamine intoxication has been reported to induce ileus in a human case report in which the patient presented with bowel obstruction signs and imaging confirmed generalized small intestinal and colonic dilation with no mechanical obstruction or ischemia [10]. This is a reminder that drug and toxin exposure belongs on the differential list, particularly in young animals with sudden unexplained ileus.

Gallstone ileus is a mechanical obstruction rather than a paralytic ileus, but it matters for the differential. A case report described a cat that developed duodenal obstruction from choleliths eight years after a cholecystoduodenostomy [11]. The cat was anorexic and lethargic with a two-day history of ptyalism and dysorexia, and ultrasound revealed duodenal obstruction [11]. This is a mechanical problem requiring surgery, and it illustrates why imaging is essential before assuming a functional cause.

Causes Table

Risk Factors

Age is a documented risk factor. In the dog study, the odds of postoperative ileus increased by approximately 10 percent for every year of age [8]. Older pets therefore warrant closer postoperative monitoring.

Surgical extent matters. Enterectomy carried a 53 percent increase in the odds of ileus compared with gastrotomy or enterotomy in that same study [8]. Procedures that remove a segment of bowel and create an anastomosis involve more manipulation and more inflammation.

Lesion location matters in horses. Small intestinal strangulating or non-strangulating obstructions carry a higher risk of persistent, treatment-refractory ileus than large intestinal lesions [9].

Intraoperative tissue oxygenation appears to matter. In horses undergoing colic surgery for small intestinal strangulation, horses with tissue oxygen saturation below 35 percent in the bowel segment orad to the strangulation were significantly more likely to suffer postoperative reflux, and all horses with mucosal injury developed postoperative reflux [12]. Postoperative reflux is the equine clinical equivalent of ileus, and this finding suggests that the health of the bowel upstream of the lesion predicts who will develop motility failure.

How Veterinarians Tell Ileus From Obstruction

Differentiating medical from surgical causes of colic is one of the primary goals of the workup, because early surgical intervention improves prognosis in patients that need surgery [13]. The same logic applies to dogs and cats with acute abdominal signs.

Physical Examination

The most accurate indicators of the need for surgery remain moderate to severe abdominal pain, recurrence of pain after appropriate analgesic therapy, and the absence of intestinal borborygmi [13]. Borborygmi are the gurgling sounds made by moving gas and fluid in the bowel. A quiet abdomen is a warning sign. Your veterinarian will palpate the abdomen carefully, assess hydration and perfusion, and check for a palpable mass or a segment of bowel that feels abnormal.

Bloodwork

A minimum database includes a complete blood count, serum biochemistry, and electrolyte panel. Electrolytes are not optional here. Hypokalemia and hypocalcemia are directly treatable causes of ileus, and finding them changes management immediately [4]. Bloodwork also helps identify pancreatitis, systemic inflammation, and organ dysfunction.

Imaging

Plain abdominal radiographs can show dilated loops of bowel and abnormal gas patterns. They can also reveal a radiopaque foreign body. However, plain films often cannot distinguish functional ileus from mechanical obstruction, because both produce dilation.

Abdominal ultrasound is frequently more informative. It allows the veterinarian to assess bowel wall thickness and layering, look for a discrete obstructive lesion, assess peristalsis in real time, and evaluate adjacent organs such as the pancreas. In the feline gallstone ileus case, ultrasound revealed the duodenal obstruction that prompted surgery [11].

Contrast Studies

Contrast radiography is the classic tool for separating functional from mechanical disease. A veterinarian administers a contrast agent and tracks its progress over a series of radiographs. Contrast that fails to move past a specific point suggests mechanical obstruction. Contrast that moves slowly but eventually progresses, with no fixed transition point, suggests functional ileus. This distinction directly determines whether the pet goes to surgery.

Gastric Residual Volume

For dogs and cats recovering from gastrointestinal foreign body surgery, a nasogastric feeding tube can serve a dual purpose. It allows quantification of gastric residual volumes to identify ileus and provides a route for nutritional management in anorexic patients [14]. In a retrospective study of 469 dogs and cats that had foreign body surgery, 210 had nasogastric tubes placed and 259 did not [14]. Tube placement was more likely in patients that underwent enterectomy, at 85.2 percent [14]. The total average gastric residual volume was 2.0 mL/kg in the first 12 hours after surgery and 5.4 mL/kg in the first 24 hours [14]. Measuring residual volume gives the clinician an objective number to track rather than relying only on the pet's appearance.

flowchart TD
    A[Pet with vomiting and distended abdomen] --> B[Physical exam and bloodwork]
    B --> C[Abdominal imaging]
    C --> D{Mechanical obstruction identified}
    D -->|Yes| E[Surgical emergency]
    D -->|No| F[Assess electrolytes]
    F --> G{Electrolyte deficit present}
    G -->|Yes| H[Correct potassium and calcium]
    G -->|No| I[Search for underlying cause]
    H --> J[Decompress gut and support]
    I --> J
    J --> K[Reassess for prokinetic use]
    K --> L[Monitor response and repeat imaging]

Evidence-Based Management

Treatment of paralytic ileus is primarily supportive. The goal is to remove the factors suppressing motility, support the patient through the period of dysfunction, and treat whatever started the problem.

Correct Fluid and Electrolyte Balance

This is the foundation. Dart and Hodgson state that all horses undergoing celiotomy for an acute abdominal crisis are at risk of ileus and should receive therapy aimed at promoting gastrointestinal function by restoring fluid and electrolyte balance [9]. The same principle applies across species. Potassium and calcium should be measured and replaced as indicated.

Fluid volume requires balance. Doherty notes that edema of the intestinal wall from excessive fluid therapy contributes to ileus, and limiting the volume of intravenous fluids to prevent intestinal edema is listed as a strategy to reduce ileus severity [4]. Giving too much fluid is not neutral. The veterinarian's job is to give enough to restore perfusion without causing bowel wall swelling.

Decompress the Gut

A distended, motionless bowel is uncomfortable and can worsen the inflammatory state. Nasogastric or orogastric decompression relieves pressure and removes retained fluid and gas. In dogs and cats after foreign body surgery, nasogastric tubes allow both decompression and measurement of gastric residual volume [14]. In horses, monitoring for postoperative reflux through a nasogastric tube is standard practice, and reflux volume is one of the main ways clinicians track whether ileus is improving.

Treat the Underlying Cause

Ileus is a sign, not a disease. If the cause is pancreatitis, treat the pancreatitis. If the cause is peritonitis, address the contamination source. If the cause is opioid-related, reassess the analgesic plan. If the cause is a toxin, manage the exposure. Supportive care buys time, but it does not replace treating the trigger.

Anti-Inflammatory Strategies

Because inflammation drives the propagation of ileus, reducing the inflammatory response is a recognized therapeutic aim. Current therapy for postoperative ileus variably includes an early return to feeding to induce physiological motility, reducing the inflammatory response with agents such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and prokinetic therapy such as lidocaine [3]. Pretreatment with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug is listed among the strategies to reduce ileus severity, along with minimizing the length of the abdominal incision, reducing intestinal manipulation, intraoperative lidocaine infusion, correction of hypocalcemia, limiting intravenous fluid volume, and administration of alpha-2 antagonists [4].

In dogs, a retrospective study found no difference in the occurrence of ileus or intestinal dehiscence in dogs that received carprofen compared with those that did not [8]. That is a safety signal rather than proof of benefit, and it should be interpreted in the context of the individual patient.

Early Feeding

An early return to feeding is used to induce physiological motility [3]. This runs counter to the old instinct to rest the gut completely, and it reflects the understanding that luminal nutrients stimulate the enteric nervous system. The timing and route depend on the individual patient, the surgery performed, and whether vomiting is controlled.

Prokinetic Decision Points

Prokinetic drugs are agents that promote gastrointestinal motility. They are the most misunderstood part of ileus management, and the decision to use them requires care.

The first and most important decision point is whether mechanical obstruction has been ruled out. Prokinetics are contraindicated when obstruction is present. Pushing contents against a fixed blockage can increase pressure, worsen ischemia, and cause perforation. No prokinetic should be given until imaging and contrast studies have excluded a mechanical cause.

The second decision point is whether the patient is likely to respond. In horses, those that had a strangulating or non-strangulating small intestinal obstruction at surgery are at greater risk of a persistent ileus refractory to treatment, and in those higher-risk horses the use of prokinetic agents should be considered [9]. This is a nuanced statement. It suggests that prokinetics are most worth trying in the patients least likely to respond, which is exactly why the evidence base is frustrating.

The third decision point is which agent. A survey of American College of Veterinary Surgeons diplomates who perform equine intestinal surgery found that for postoperative ileus associated with most intestinal lesions, 2 percent lidocaine was most commonly selected. Other prokinetics in decreasing frequency of use were erythromycin lactobionate, metoclopramide, and cisapride [15]. Prokinetic agents were more commonly administered after small intestine strangulating obstructions and less commonly for large intestinal lesions [15]. The same survey found that selection of agent for specific conditions was relatively uniform, but there was considerable variation in dose administered [15].

The fourth decision point is whether the evidence supports the choice. A retrospective study of 55 horses with postoperative ileus following pedunculated lipoma obstruction found that breed and hospital were significantly associated with short-term survival, but the use of prokinetic agents was not, with a P value of 0.15 [16]. The authors noted that the sample size was too small to detect differences in outcome, and they concluded that it was not possible to definitively evaluate prokinetic efficacy using retrospective data. The data were suggestive of limited efficacy [16]. They also postulated that the association between hospital and survival reflects differences in clinician decision making, and they highlighted the need for prospective randomized trials [16].

This is the honest state of the evidence. Prokinetics are widely used, dose practices vary, and high-quality proof of benefit is limited. A survey of prokinetic use in horses concluded that although prokinetics are commonly used for management of postoperative ileus, there is clearly a need for more controlled studies [15].

Species Differences in Prokinetic Response

Species differences are real and clinically important. The receptor populations, baseline motility patterns, and drug sensitivities differ enough that a drug helpful in one species may be ineffective or harmful in another.

Horses have been studied most extensively. The agents that may be used to improve gastrointestinal motility in horses include adrenergic receptor antagonists, cholinergic agonists, benzamides, dopamine antagonists, macrolide antimicrobials, opiate receptor agonists and antagonists, somatostatin analogues, and local anesthetics [9]. Dart and Hodgson note that there are limited studies into the use of these agents in the horse, and until further research provides more information on motility disorders following intestinal surgery and the efficacy of prokinetic agents in this species, only selective use of some of these drugs can be recommended [9].

Cattle have a different response profile. Bethanechol and neostigmine significantly increase myoelectric activity of the cecum and proximal loop of the ascending colon in healthy cows [17]. Investigations of prokinetic effects on abomasal displacement in cattle do not allow conclusions because no results from controlled experimental disease models are available [17].

In dogs and cats, gastric motility disorders are recognized as under-recognized in small animal practice, and management includes a review of the documented effect of gastric prokinetics [18]. The literature emphasizes that diagnosing these disorders is challenging and that the evidence for specific agents is limited [18].

The practical implication for owners is that prokinetic choice is not interchangeable between species and is not a decision to make at home.

Emerging and Adjunctive Approaches

Research into postoperative ileus has explored several novel targets. A 5-HT4 receptor agonist called mosapride citrate and a cytoprotective disaccharide called trehalose were tested in a mouse model of intestinal manipulation induced ileus. All four treatment groups showed significantly increased dye recovery in the lower small intestine compared with controls [19]. Notably, sequential administration of trehalose first followed by mosapride produced greater dye progression past the manipulated region than simultaneous administration [19]. This suggests that timing and sequence of administration matter, and that sequential therapy may be a promising strategy [19].

A traditional Japanese herbal medicine called hangekobokuto significantly inhibited neutrophil and macrophage infiltration and led to recovery of delayed intestinal transit in a mouse ileus model [20]. It decreased inducible nitric oxide synthase and honokiol levels, suggesting anti-inflammatory activity [20].

These are early-stage findings in laboratory models. They are not yet standard clinical treatments, and owners should not seek them out as home remedies.

Unsafe Home Remedies and Common Mistakes

Do not give food or water to a vomiting pet with a distended abdomen. If there is a mechanical obstruction, adding contents increases pressure and risk.

Do not give human anti-nausea medications, laxatives, or motility drugs. Prokinetic drugs are contraindicated when obstruction is present, and giving one to a pet with a blockage can cause perforation.

Do not massage or press on a painful, distended abdomen. If the bowel is compromised, external pressure can worsen the injury.

Do not wait to see if the pet passes stool. A pet with ileus may pass small amounts of stool or none at all, and a pet with obstruction may also pass stool from the segment below the blockage. Stool production does not rule out either condition.

Do not assume that a previous episode of ileus means this episode is ileus. Each presentation needs its own evaluation.

Prevention

Prevention focuses on reducing the factors that trigger ileus in the first place.

Surgical technique matters. Minimizing the length of the abdominal incision and reducing intestinal manipulation are listed strategies to reduce ileus severity [4]. Gentle tissue handling is not a minor detail. It is a direct application of the inflammatory pathophysiology.

Perioperative medication choices matter. Pretreatment with a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, intraoperative lidocaine infusion, and administration of alpha-2 antagonists are all listed as strategies to reduce ileus severity [4]. Opioid therapy is a recognized perioperative factor implicated in ileus, so opioid-sparing approaches deserve consideration [3].

Fluid therapy should be deliberate. Limiting intravenous fluid volume to prevent intestinal edema is a listed strategy [4]. More fluid is not automatically better.

Electrolyte monitoring should be proactive. Correcting hypocalcemia is specifically listed as a strategy to reduce ileus severity [4], and restoring fluid and electrolyte balance is the foundation of therapy in horses at risk [9].

For pets undergoing gastrointestinal surgery, postoperative monitoring with a nasogastric tube allows objective tracking of gastric residual volume and early identification of ileus [14]. Discuss with your veterinarian whether this is appropriate for your pet.

Prognosis

Prognosis depends heavily on the underlying cause and the species. In horses, postoperative ileus following small intestinal resection carries a 37.5 percent mortality rate before discharge [3]. That is a serious figure and reflects how fragile equine patients can be after major abdominal surgery.

In the dog study of 721 foreign body surgeries, 199 dogs experienced ileus and 13 experienced intestinal dehiscence [8]. The study did not report survival figures for the ileus group, but the fact that most dogs with ileus did not have dehiscence is reassuring.

For dogs and cats with ileus after foreign body surgery, the ability to measure gastric residual volume through a nasogastric tube gives clinicians a way to track recovery objectively [14]. Improvement in residual volumes over time is a favorable sign.

The most important prognostic factor is whether the underlying cause can be corrected. Ileus from hypocalcemia that is promptly treated has a very different trajectory than ileus from diffuse peritonitis.

Limitations and When to Contact a Veterinarian

This article describes general principles. Your pet's situation depends on its specific diagnosis, species, age, and concurrent conditions, and only a veterinarian who examines your pet can make treatment decisions.

Contact a veterinarian immediately if your pet has any of the following:

• Repeated vomiting or unproductive retching
• A visibly distended or swollen abdomen
• Abdominal pain, including pacing, panting, whining, or resenting being touched
• Drooling or ptyalism, especially in cats
• No stool production for more than 24 hours with other signs
• Collapse, weakness, or pale gums
• Known or suspected ingestion of a foreign object, toxin, or medication
• Deterioration after gastrointestinal surgery, including increased vomiting, lethargy, or refusal to eat

Call your veterinarian if your pet is recovering from gastrointestinal surgery and you are unsure whether the current behavior is normal recovery or a complication. It is always appropriate to ask.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is paralytic ileus in pets?

Paralytic ileus is a functional loss of intestinal peristalsis, meaning the bowel stops pushing contents forward even though there is no physical blockage. It is defined as the absence of propulsive aboral movement of gastrointestinal contents [1].

How is paralytic ileus different from a mechanical obstruction?

Paralytic ileus is a failure of the bowel's muscular and nervous function. Mechanical obstruction is a physical blockage such as a foreign body, mass, or stricture. The distinction matters because obstruction usually requires surgery while ileus is usually managed medically, and prokinetics are contraindicated with obstruction.

What causes paralytic ileus in dogs and cats?

Common causes include postoperative ileus after abdominal surgery, low potassium or calcium, pancreatitis, peritonitis, opioid pain medications, and severe enteritis. In dogs, one study found that the odds of postoperative ileus increased by 53 percent after enterectomy compared with gastrotomy or enterotomy, and by about 10 percent for every year of age [8].

Can paralytic ileus resolve on its own?

Mild postoperative ileus often improves as inflammation subsides, and pacemaker cell networks can recover within about 48 hours in experimental models [2]. However, ileus caused by electrolyte problems, peritonitis, or pancreatitis needs specific treatment, and it will not reliably resolve without addressing the underlying cause.

Are prokinetic drugs safe for ileus?

Prokinetics are contraindicated when mechanical obstruction is present. When obstruction has been ruled out, they may be used cautiously, but the evidence for benefit is limited. A retrospective study in horses found no significant association between prokinetic use and short-term survival, with a P value of 0.15 [16].

Why does my pet need imaging if ileus is a functional problem?

Imaging is how veterinarians rule out mechanical obstruction, which can look identical from the outside. Plain radiographs, ultrasound, and contrast studies help distinguish functional ileus from a physical blockage, and that distinction determines whether your pet needs surgery.

How long does postoperative ileus last in pets?

Duration varies with the procedure, the species, and how quickly the underlying inflammation resolves. In experimental models, pacemaker disruption recovered by 48 hours [2]. Clinical recovery in real patients often takes longer and depends on electrolyte correction, pain control, and whether complications develop.

Can I treat ileus at home?

No. Paralytic ileus requires veterinary diagnosis and management. Home treatment with food, water, human medications, or abdominal massage can worsen the situation, especially if a mechanical obstruction is present. Seek veterinary care promptly.

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