Antimicrobial Stewardship in Feline Respiratory Infections: When Antibiotics Are Needed

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Feline upper respiratory infections are predominantly viral, with feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) and feline calicivirus (FCV) being the most common primary pathogens; antimicrobial therapy is not indicated for uncomplicated viral infections.
• Purulent nasal discharge alone is insufficient justification for antimicrobial use, as it often reflects neutrophilic inflammation secondary to viral epithelial damage rather than a primary bacterial infection.
• Antimicrobial therapy is indicated for confirmed primary bacterial infections (e.g., Bordetella bronchiseptica, Chlamydia felis), secondary bacterial infections evidenced by persistent purulent discharge (>10 days) or worsening signs, immunocompromised cats, or virulent systemic FCV.
• Chronic rhinitis (>10 days) warrants advanced diagnostics such as imaging, rhinoscopy, and deep nasal culture before initiating antimicrobial therapy to differentiate bacterial, fungal, or neoplastic causes.
• Doxycycline is a first-line antimicrobial for Chlamydia felis and Mycoplasma species, while fluoroquinolones are reserved for confirmed resistant infections or severe pneumonia due to stewardship principles.
• Supportive care, including humidification, nutritional support, and ocular lubrication, is the cornerstone of management for viral feline respiratory disease and aids in recovery from secondary bacterial complications.

Feline respiratory infections are among the most common presentations in small animal practice, yet they are also among the most frequent indications for unnecessary antimicrobial use. This article provides a decision framework for the practicing veterinarian, distinguishing viral, bacterial, and fungal etiologies and defining the specific clinical scenarios in which antimicrobial therapy is genuinely indicated. The focus is diagnostic reasoning: how to identify the cat that needs antibiotics, how to choose the drug when one is needed, and how to avoid antimicrobials when they will not help.

The reader is assumed to be a qualified veterinarian comfortable with clinical terminology and routine diagnostic procedures. The content is organized as a professional reference, not as owner-directed advice. It addresses the question: in a cat presenting with sneezing, nasal discharge, or ocular signs, what clinical findings justify antimicrobial therapy, and what findings mandate supportive care alone?

At a Glance

The Virologic Basis of Feline Respiratory Disease

Feline herpesvirus type 1 and feline calicivirus are the dominant primary pathogens in feline upper respiratory disease. FHV-1 causes acute rhinitis, conjunctivitis, and ulcerative keratitis, with latency established in the trigeminal ganglia after primary infection. Reactivation occurs with stress, immunosuppression, or corticosteroid administration. FCV produces oral ulceration, rhinitis, and sometimes acute lameness, its RNA polymerase error rate confers high genetic plasticity, allowing rapid antigenic variation and the emergence of highly virulent systemic strains Feline calicivirus. Neither virus responds to antimicrobial therapy, and both resolve with supportive care in immunocompetent cats.

The clinical relevance of this virologic foundation is direct: most acute feline respiratory infections are viral, and the presence of nasal discharge, sneezing, or conjunctivitis does not by itself indicate bacterial infection. Mucopurulent discharge develops as a consequence of neutrophilic inflammation in response to viral epithelial damage, not necessarily as evidence of bacterial colonization. The veterinarian who treats every purulent nasal discharge with an antibiotic is treating the inflammatory response to a virus, not a bacterial pathogen.

Bacterial Pathogens and Their Clinical Signatures

Primary bacterial respiratory pathogens in cats are less common than viral causes but are clinically important. Bordetella bronchiseptica causes rhinitis and bronchopneumonia, particularly in kittens and in crowded environments such as shelters. Chlamydia felis produces conjunctivitis with chemosis and serous to mucopurulent ocular discharge, often with mild upper respiratory signs. Mycoplasma species can contribute to conjunctivitis and rhinitis, frequently as co-pathogens with viruses or C. felis.

Secondary bacterial infection complicates viral disease when epithelial damage compromises mucosal defenses. The distinction between primary and secondary bacterial infection matters for therapeutic decisions. Primary bacterial infection justifies antimicrobial therapy on clinical suspicion. Secondary bacterial infection requires evidence, typically persistent purulent discharge beyond the expected duration of viral disease, worsening clinical signs, or cytologic and culture confirmation.

Antimicrobial Stewardship Principles Applied to Feline Respiratory Disease

Antimicrobial stewardship in veterinary medicine rests on a simple premise: use antimicrobials only when bacterial infection is confirmed or strongly suspected, choose the narrowest effective agent, and treat for the shortest effective duration. Professional guidance from the American Veterinary Medical Association emphasizes judicious use, resistance mitigation, and the veterinarian's responsibility to preserve antimicrobial efficacy AVMA antimicrobial use and stewardship resources. Regulatory oversight of approved animal drugs, including label indications and extralabel use provisions, is provided by the FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine FDA animal drug information.

Applied to feline respiratory disease, stewardship means resisting the reflex to prescribe amoxicillin or doxycycline for every sneezing cat. It means establishing a diagnosis, or at least a defensible clinical suspicion, before dispensing an antimicrobial. It means documenting the indication in the medical record and scheduling re-evaluation to confirm response. The cost of indiscriminate use is also financial, it is the progressive erosion of antimicrobial efficacy in the feline population and the selection of resistant organizms that complicate future treatment.

The Diagnostic Reasoning Framework

The clinical approach to feline respiratory infection begins with a temporal and severity assessment. Acute disease of less than 10 days duration in an otherwise healthy cat is almost always viral. Supportive care, including humidification, nutritional support, and ocular lubrication, is the mainstay. Antimicrobials are withheld unless the cat develops pyrexia, lethargy, anorexia, or evidence of pneumonia.

Chronic disease, defined as signs persisting beyond 10 days, warrants a broader diagnostic evaluation. Bacterial rhinitis, fungal rhinitis, nasal foreign bodies, and neoplasia enter the differential list. Diagnostic imaging, rhinoscopy, and culture of deep nasal samples are appropriate before committing to antimicrobial therapy. Empiric therapy without diagnostic sampling in chronic rhinitis risks treating the wrong organizm, missing a fungal or neoplastic process, and delaying definitive diagnosis.

The cat with ocular signs deserves specific attention. Acute conjunctivitis in a young cat, particularly with chemosis, raises suspicion for C. felis. Doxycycline is the drug of choice, and treatment of all cats in the household is often recommended because of the high transmission rate. FHV-1 conjunctivitis, by contrast, does not respond to antimicrobials, and topical antiviral therapy or supportive care is appropriate.

When Antibiotics Are Genuinely Indicated

Antimicrobial therapy is indicated in four clinical scenarios in feline respiratory disease. First, confirmed primary bacterial infection, such as B. bronchiseptica pneumonia or C. felis conjunctivitis. Second, secondary bacterial infection complicating viral disease, evidenced by persistent purulent discharge beyond 10 days, worsening clinical signs, or cytologic confirmation of intracellular bacteria. Third, suspected bacterial infection in an immunocompromised cat, including those with feline immunodeficiency virus or feline leukemia virus infection, where the threshold for treatment is lower because of impaired host defenses Epidemiologic and clinical aspects of feline immunodeficiency virus infection. Fourth, virulent systemic feline calicivirus infection, where secondary bacterial invasion and sepsis are common and broad-spectrum antimicrobials are part of the supportive protocol Feline calicivirus.

In each scenario, the choice of antimicrobial should follow current formulary guidance. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides species-specific pharmacology and clinical recommendations that are updated regularly MSD Veterinary Manual professional edition. Doxycycline is the first-line agent for C. felis, Mycoplasma, and many Bordetella infections. Amoxicillin-clavulanate is appropriate for mixed infections and abscessation. Fluoroquinolones are reserved for confirmed resistant infections or severe pneumonia, given their importance in human medicine and the stewardship imperative to preserve their efficacy.

Clinical Differentiation of Viral and Bacterial Respiratory Disease

The first decision point in antimicrobial stewardship is determining whether the clinical syndrome is consistent with primary viral infection, primary bacterial infection, or viral infection with secondary bacterial complications. Feline calicivirus (FCV) and feline herpesvirus type 1 (FHV-1) account for the majority of feline upper respiratory infections, and both produce clinical signs that overlap substantially with bacterial rhinitis Feline calicivirus review. The distinction rests on temporal pattern, lesion character, and response to supportive care instead of on any single test.

Clinical Sign Patterns That Favor Viral Infection

Acute onset in a young or recently vaccinated cat, particularly one from a shelter or multi-cat household, strongly suggests viral etiology. FHV-1 typically produces serous to mucoid ocular discharge, conjunctivitis, sneezing, and sometimes corneal ulceration with a characteriztic dendritic pattern. FCV more often causes oral ulceration, salivation, and pyrexia, with ocular signs less prominent Feline calicivirus review. Neither virus produces the unilateral, purulent, malodorous nasal discharge that characterizes primary bacterial rhinitis.

Bilateral serous discharge, sneezing without systemic compromise, and normal appetite and activity in the first 48 to 72 hours all support a viral process. The cat that continues to eat, groom, and interact despite nasal congestion is rarely in need of antimicrobial therapy. Conversely, the cat that becomes lethargic, febrile beyond the first 72 hours, or develops purulent discharge after a period of clear discharge warrants re-evaluation for bacterial superinfection.

Clinical Sign Patterns That Favor Bacterial Infection

Primary bacterial rhinitis in cats is uncommon and typically chronic. Bordetella bronchiseptica, Mycoplasma species, Chlamydia felis, and less commonly Streptococcus equi subsp. zooepidemicus can cause primary disease, but the clinical picture differs from viral infection in several ways. Bacterial rhinitis tends to produce persistent unilateral or bilateral purulent discharge, often with a distinctive odour, and may be associated with dental disease, nasal foreign bodies, or nasopharyngeal polyps. The discharge is present from the outset instead of evolving from serous to purulent over several days.

Secondary bacterial infection should be suspected when a cat with confirmed or suspected viral disease deteriorates after initial improvement, develops fever beyond day 5, or shows radiographic or endoscopic evidence of turbinate destruction or frontal sinusitis. The presence of concurrent immunosuppressive disease, such as feline immunodeficiency virus infection, increases the likelihood of secondary bacterial complications and warrants a lower threshold for antimicrobial intervention FIV epidemiologic and clinical aspects.

Diagnostic Testing That Changes the Decision

Point-of-care testing has limited utility in distinguishing viral from bacterial disease. Polymerase chain reaction for FHV-1 and FCV can confirm viral presence but cannot prove causation, as healthy carriers shed both viruses intermittently Feline calicivirus review. A positive PCR result in a cat with compatible clinical signs supports a viral diagnosis, but a negative result does not exclude it, particularly in chronic cases where shedding may be intermittent.

Cytology of nasal discharge is inexpensive and can be performed in-clinic. Neutrophilic inflammation with intracellular bacteria supports bacterial infection, while a predominance of epithelial cells and mucus with few bacteria favours viral or non-infectious causes. Aerobic culture and susceptibility testing should be reserved for cats with chronic or recurrent disease, those that have failed empirical therapy, or those with suspected multidrug-resistant infection. Samples for culture should be obtained from the nasal cavity via guarded swab or from tissue during rhinoscopy, not from the nares, where commensal flora dominate.

The Decision Tree for Antimicrobial Initiation

The following decision framework applies to cats with acute respiratory signs of less than 10 days duration. It assumes the cat is stable, eating, and not dyspnoeic.

The decision to start antimicrobials should be revisited at 48 to 72 hours. If the cat has improved on supportive care alone, no antimicrobials are needed. If the cat has worsened or failed to improve, reassess the diagnosis instead of reflexively adding an antibiotic. Consider nasal foreign bodies, dental disease, fungal rhinitis, and neoplasia in cats that do not respond to appropriate therapy.

Supportive Care as the Primary Intervention

Supportive care is the mainstay of management for viral feline respiratory disease and is often sufficient for mild secondary bacterial infection. The goals are to maintain hydration, ensure nutritional intake, relieve nasal congestion, and manage ocular disease.

Airway and Nasal Care

Nasal congestion impairs olfaction, which suppresses appetite in cats. Steam therapy, gentle saline nebulisation, and frequent wiping of nasal discharge improve airflow and comfort. Appetite stimulants such as mirtazapine may be considered in cats that are not eating, but they do not replace the need to address nasal obstruction. In severely congested cats, temporary placement of a nasal feeding tube may be necessary to maintain nutrition.

Ocular Care

FHV-1 conjunctivitis and keratitis require topical lubrication and, in cases of corneal ulceration, topical antiviral therapy. Systemic antimicrobials do not treat viral keratitis and may delay recognition of bacterial keratitis if corneal melting develops. The cat with a dendritic ulcer and no bacterial cytology should not receive systemic antibiotics FDA animal drug information.

Hydration and Nutrition

Subcutaneous or intravenous fluids are indicated for cats that are dehydrated, vomiting, or not drinking. Nutritional support should be initiated if anorexia exceeds 48 to 72 hours. The cat that continues to eat, even if less than usual, can usually be managed at home with owner-administered supportive care.

Antimicrobial Selection When Indicated

When antimicrobial therapy is genuinely indicated, the choice of agent should reflect the likely pathogen, the tissue penetration required, and the local resistance profile. Empirical therapy for suspected secondary bacterial infection in feline respiratory disease typically targets Bordetella, Mycoplasma, and Pasteurella species. Doxycycline is commonly selected because of its activity against Mycoplasma and Chlamydia felis and its concentration in respiratory tissues. Amoxicillin-clavulanate provides broader Gram-positive and anaerobic coverage and is appropriate when dental disease or aspiration pneumonia is suspected.

The duration of therapy should be the shortest that achieves clinical resolution, typically 7 to 10 days for acute secondary infection and longer for chronic rhinitis. Re-evaluation at the end of the treatment course is mandatory. The cat that improves but does not resolve requires further diagnostic investigation, not an extended course of the same antimicrobial AVMA antimicrobial stewardship guidance.

Monitoring Parameters and Documentation

Monitoring during antimicrobial therapy serves three purposes: confirming response, detecting adverse effects, and documenting the rationale for the prescribing decision. Body weight, temperature, appetite, nasal discharge character, and respiratory effort should be recorded at each recheck. The cat that fails to improve within 72 hours of appropriate antimicrobial therapy should be re-evaluated for diagnostic error, dosing error, or antimicrobial resistance.

Documentation should include the clinical signs that triggered antimicrobial use, the diagnostic tests performed, the drug and dose prescribed, the planned duration, and the recheck interval. This record supports stewardship audits and provides continuity if the case is transferred to another clinician. The MSD Veterinary Manual and AVMA practice resources offer templates and guidance for antimicrobial prescribing records.

When the Clinical Context Changes the Approach

Shelter medicine, referral practice, and general practice each impose different constraints on antimicrobial decision-making. In shelters, group housing and high turnover create pressure to treat empirically and early, but the same viral pathogens dominate and the same stewardship principles apply. A shelter cat with acute viral upper respiratory infection does not require antimicrobials merely because it is housed in a high-density population.

In referral practice, the availability of rhinoscopy, computed tomography, and rapid PCR panels allows more precise diagnosis before antimicrobial initiation. In general practice, where these tools may not be available, the decision tree above provides a structured approach that minimizes unnecessary antimicrobial use while identifying the cat that genuinely needs treatment.

Patient status also changes the calculus. The cat with chronic kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, or retroviral infection may decompensate more rapidly with bacterial superinfection and may warrant earlier intervention FIV epidemiologic and clinical aspects. The pregnant queen, the kitten under 8 weeks of age, and the cat with known drug sensitivities require adjustments to drug choice and monitoring frequency. In all cases, the current label and formulary references must be consulted before prescribing, and the clinician should verify that the chosen agent is appropriate for the specific patient FDA animal drug information.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

The most consequential failure in feline respiratory disease is progression from viral to bacterial pneumonia. Detect it before radiographic changes become extensive. Serial auscultation every 12 to 24 hours should target new crackles, regional dullness, or bronchial tones. Tachypnoea that fails to improve with nasal decongestion and steam therapy warrants thoracic radiographs even when the patient appears otherwise stable. Pulse oximetry below 94% on room air, or a rising respiratory effort score, should prompt the same investigation.

Chronic bacterial rhinitis develops when acute viral rhinitis damages turbinate architecture and permits persistent bacterial colonisation. The hallmark is unilateral or bilaterally asymmetric mucopurulent discharge lasting beyond 10 to 14 days despite resolution of systemic signs. Early detection relies on serial re-examination instead of owner telephone follow-up. Recheck visits at day 7 and day 14 allow you to distinguish prolonged viral shedding from true bacterial superinfection.

Virulent systemic feline calicivirus infection can mimic routine upper respiratory disease in its first 24 to 48 hours. The discriminating features are pyrexia above 40.0°C, facial or limb edema, cutaneous ulceration, and jaundice. Any cat with suspected calicivirus and systemic signs should be examined twice daily for these developments, as described in the feline calicivirus literature feline calicivirus review.

Ocular complications include corneal sequestrum formation in cats with chronic herpesvirus keratitis and symblepharon from untreated conjunctival ulceration. Examine the cornea with fluorescein staining at every recheck. A persistent epithelial defect beyond 7 days, or pigmentation developing within a healing ulcer, should trigger referral to a veterinary ophthalmologist.

Common Errors and Corrective Actions

Less experienced clinicians commonly prescribe antibiotics when discharge changes from serous to mucoid, interpreting this as bacterial infection. Mucoid change reflects increased mucus production from inflamed glands and does not by itself indicate bacterial involvement. The corrective action is cytology. Degenerate neutrophils with intracellular bacteria justify antimicrobial therapy, mucoid debris without neutrophils does not.

A second error is treating every cat with doxycycline for suspected Mycoplasma or Chlamydia without diagnostic confirmation. This practice converts a stewardship framework into reflexive prescribing. If you choose to treat empirically, document the clinical rationale, set a stop date, and reassess at that point. The AVMA antimicrobial stewardship resources emphasize documenting the indication, drug, dose, and duration for every antimicrobial course AVMA antimicrobial use and stewardship guidance.

A third error is discharging cats with suspected herpesvirus keratitis on topical corticosteroids. This can precipitate corneal ulceration and perforation. Always stain the cornea before dispensing any corticosteroid-containing ophthalmic preparation.

Limitations of the Evidence and Areas of Expert Disagreement

The evidence base for antimicrobial decisions in feline respiratory disease is thinner than in canine disease. Most published guidance derives from expert opinion and extrapolation from human medicine instead of randomised controlled trials in cats. The role of Mycoplasma felis as a primary pathogen remains contested. Some authorities treat it routinely, others regard it as a commensal that only causes disease in immunocompromised or coinfected cats. Neither position has strong trial support.

The value of bacterial culture from nasal swabs is disputed. Surface swabs frequently grow commensal organizms that do not reflect deep infection. Protected brush sampling during rhinoscopy provides more reliable results but is not universally available. Expert opinion differs on whether empirical therapy is preferable to culture-guided therapy for first-episode bacterial rhinitis.

The duration of antimicrobial therapy for confirmed bacterial pneumonia in cats is extrapolated largely from canine and human protocols. No feline-specific trials define the optimal course length. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides general treatment principles but does not resolve this uncertainty MSD Veterinary Manual professional reference.

Referral, Consultation, and Reporting

Refer to a specialist when the diagnosis remains uncertain after full investigation, when corneal disease threatens vision, when chronic rhinitis fails two appropriately selected antimicrobial courses, or when a cat requires repeated general anesthesia for diagnostic sampling. A veterinary ophthalmologist should manage corneal sequestra and perforations. An internal medicine specialist should evaluate cats with suspected fungal rhinitis, neoplasia, or immune-mediated nasal disease.

Laboratory involvement is indicated when cytology suggests unusual pathogens, when culture yields mixed growth that is difficult to interpret, or when antimicrobial susceptibility testing is needed for a resistant isolate. Discuss the sample type and transport medium with the laboratory before collection.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. Report suspected adverse drug reactions to the relevant national authority. The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine provides information on adverse event reporting for animal drugs in the United States FDA animal drug information. Reportable diseases, including those with trade implications, should be notified according to the standards in the WOAH terrestrial animal health code WOAH terrestrial animal health standards.

Frequently Asked Questions

How Do I Manage Suspected Bacterial Rhinitis When the Owner Cannot Afford Advanced Imaging or Biopsy?

When financial constraints preclude rhinoscopy, CT, or histopathology, base the decision on response to a structured empirical trial. Document baseline clinical signs, including nasal discharge character, airflow, and sneezing frequency. Initiate a single antimicrobial chosen for likely feline pathogens and reassess at a defined interval, typically 7 to 14 days. If signs improve, continue to the full course. If there is no response, stop the drug instead of switching to a second agent without further diagnostics. Radiographs under anesthesia may identify destructive rhinitis or tooth root disease at lower cost than CT. Refer to the MSD Veterinary Manual for guidance on interpreting imaging findings in chronic nasal disease.

What Should I Record in the Medical Record When I Decide to Withhold Antibiotics?

Record the clinical signs that supported a viral or nonbacterial diagnosis, the negative or inconclusive test results, and the specific reasons antimicrobials were deferred. Note the client discussion, including the expected duration of illness and the specific warning signs that should prompt re-evaluation. Document the planned revisit date and any supportive care prescribed. This record demonstrates that the decision was deliberate and evidence-based, not an oversight. The AVMA antimicrobial stewardship resources emphasize that judicious use decisions should be defensible and transparent within the practice team.

How Do I Explain to a Client That Antibiotics Will Not Help Their Cat's Viral Infection?

Use the client's observations as the starting point. Explain that the cat's sneezing, ocular discharge, and lethargy are caused by a virus, and that antibiotics only kill bacteria, not viruses. Describe what the cat's immune system is doing and how supportive care assists that process. Be specific about what the client should monitor and when to call back. Acknowledge that many cats recover in 7 to 10 days with nursing care alone. The viral basis of common feline respiratory disease is well documented in reviews of feline calicivirus and related pathogens, which describe the spectrum from inapparent infection to clinical disease without bacterial involvement feline calicivirus review.

When Is It Appropriate to Use a Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Before Culture Results Return?

Empirical broad-spectrum therapy is appropriate when the cat has signs of systemic illness, such as fever, lethargy, or inappetence, together with mucopurulent nasal discharge, or when bronchopneumonia is suspected on thoracic imaging. In these cases, the risk of delaying effective therapy outweighs the stewardship concern. Collect samples for culture before the first dose whenever possible. Once susceptibility results are available, narrow the drug choice accordingly. The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine provides label information that should guide product selection and duration, and current formulary references must be consulted for dosing.

Does the Presence of Feline Immunodeficiency Virus or Feline Leukemia Virus Change My Antibiotic Decision?

Retrovirus status should inform the threshold for starting antibiotics, not replace clinical judgment. Cats infected with feline immunodeficiency virus have higher rates of chronic upper respiratory tract disease, and coinfection with other pathogens is common FIV epidemiology and clinical aspects. If a retrovirus-positive cat presents with acute respiratory signs, a lower threshold for bacterial culture and earlier antimicrobial initiation is reasonable, particularly if signs persist beyond 7 days or if there is mucopurulent discharge. However, the same stewardship principles apply: confirm bacterial involvement before committing to therapy, and reassess response at a defined endpoint.

How Should I Handle a Cat That Relapses Shortly After Stopping an Appropriate Antimicrobial?

A relapse after appropriate therapy should trigger a search for an underlying structural or viral cause, not an immediate repeat prescription. Consider persistent feline calicivirus carriage, which is well recognized in recovered cats and may cause recurrent or chronic disease feline calicivirus review. Re-evaluate for foreign bodies, dental disease, nasal polyps, or neoplasia. Repeat culture with susceptibility testing is indicated if bacterial infection is still suspected, because resistance may have emerged during the first course. If no bacterial pathogen is identified, antimicrobials should be withheld and the diagnostic plan expanded instead of cycling through alternative drugs empirically.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Veterinary Formulary Essentials: Navigating Drug References
• Drug Interactions with Antiepileptic Drugs in Veterinary Patients: Managing Polypharmacy
• Drug Interactions with Corticosteroids in Veterinary Patients: A Comprehensive Review

References and Further Reading

• Can the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Affect the Eyes? A Review of Coronaviruses and Ocular Implications in Humans and Animals.. 2020.
• Heartworm disease in animals and humans.. 2008.
• Epidemiologic and clinical aspects of feline immunodeficiency virus infection in cats from the continental United States and Canada and possible mode of transmission.. 1989.
• A serological survey of SARS-CoV-2 in cat in Wuhan.. 2020.
• Feline calicivirus.. 2007.
• Reversal of the Progression of Fatal Coronavirus Infection in Cats by a Broad-Spectrum Coronavirus Protease Inhibitor.. 2016.
• FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine: Animal Drug Information. FDA CVM.
• AVMA Antimicrobial Use and Stewardship. American Veterinary Medical Association.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.

Related Articles

• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Respiratory Infections of Dogs and Cats
• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Feline Urinary Tract Infections: When to Treat and When to Wait
• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Feline Abscesses: Incision and Drainage vs Antibiotics
• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Canine Diarrhea: When Antibiotics Are Not the Answer
• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Canine Postoperative Infections: Prevention and Treatment

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.