Antimicrobial Stewardship in Canine Postoperative Infections: Prevention and Treatment

By Dr. Zubair Khalid, DVM, MS, PhD · 2026-08-11

Key Takeaways

• Perioperative antibiotic prophylaxis is indicated for clean-contaminated procedures, procedures exceeding 90 minutes, those involving implants, or in immunocompromised patients; healthy dogs undergoing clean, elective procedures do not require postoperative antibiotics.
• Prophylactic antibiotics must be administered preoperatively, ideally within 30 to 60 minutes of incision, and redosed intraoperatively for prolonged surgeries or significant blood loss to maintain therapeutic tissue concentrations.
• For established postoperative infections, culture and susceptibility testing of deep tissue or fluid aspirates are critical before initiating or adjusting antimicrobial therapy, guiding the transition from empirical broad-spectrum to narrow-spectrum agents.
• Postoperative fever is not an automatic indication for antibiotics; a thorough evaluation of the surgical site and other organ systems is necessary to differentiate infection from other causes of pyrexia.
• Local antibiotic delivery, such as intrawound vancomycin powder, has limited veterinary clinical trial data supporting its routine use in canine surgery, with human data showing mixed results and not supporting its use in clean procedures.
• Minimizing unnecessary allogeneic blood transfusions is a prudent measure, as transfusion-related immunomodulation has been identified as a significant predictor of postoperative infection in human spinal surgery.

Postoperative infections in dogs impose a measurable burden on patients, owners, and practice resources. Surgical site infections prolong hospitalization, increase reoperation rates, and drive antimicrobial consumption that may not be justified by culture results. This article provides a decision framework for perioperative prophylaxis and postoperative treatment in canine surgical patients, written for practicing veterinarians who manage routine and complex procedures. It addresses when antibiotics are indicated before surgery, how to select agents for contaminated wounds, and how to transition from empirical therapy to culture-guided treatment when infection develops.

The clinical question at the center of this reference is direct: which antimicrobial interventions prevent postoperative infection in dogs, and which are unnecessary or harmful? The answer requires distinguishing prophylaxis from treatment, understanding the pharmacokinetic limitations of systemic antibiotics in surgical sites, and recognizing that local drug delivery and host factors influence outcomes. The evidence base draws heavily on human spinal surgery literature, where infection risk and prevention strategies have been studied more rigorously than in veterinary surgery. Those studies inform principles that transfer to canine practice with appropriate caution.

At a Glance

Biology of Surgical Site Infection

Surgical site infection develops when bacterial contamination exceeds the host's ability to clear it. Inoculum size, virulence, foreign material, tissue viability, and local perfusion all determine whether contamination progresses to clinical infection. The critical period for bacterial proliferation begins at closure and extends for roughly 48 to 72 hours, after which wound defenses consolidate. Systemic antibiotics administered before incision achieve therapeutic tissue concentrations during this vulnerable window, which is why preoperative timing matters more than postoperative duration.

The microbiology of canine surgical site infections mirrors human patterns. Gram-positive organizms, particularly staphylococci, predominate in clean procedures. Contaminated surgeries involving the gastrointestinal or urinary tracts introduce gram-negative enteric organizms and anaerobes. Biofilm formation on implants and suture material complicates treatment because bacteria within biofilms tolerate antibiotic concentrations that would kill planktonic organizms. This explains why implant-associated infections often persist despite apparently appropriate antimicrobial therapy and require implant removal for resolution.

Evidence from Human Spinal Surgery and Its Limits

The most rigorous studies of postoperative infection prevention come from human spinal surgery, where infection rates of 1 to 10 percent have driven investigation of local antibiotic delivery. A prospective randomized trial of 907 spine surgery patients compared systemic prophylaxis alone with systemic prophylaxis plus intrawound vancomycin powder and found no significant difference in infection rates between groups, with infections occurring in 1.68 percent of control patients and 1.61 percent of treatment patients. This result contrasts with earlier retrospective work, including a review of 110 traumatic spine fusion patients that reported reduced infections with vancomycin powder, and with a rabbit model showing that intrawound vancomycin eradicated known staphylococcal contamination. The discrepancy between retrospective and prospective data illustrates a core stewardship lesson: uncontrolled case series overestimate treatment effects, and clinical decisions should follow the strongest available evidence.

Local gentamicin delivery has also been studied. A rabbit spinal implant model demonstrated that controlled-release gentamicin microspheres reduced biomaterial-centered infection compared with systemic cephalosporin prophylaxis alone. The rationale for local delivery is pharmacokinetic. Systemic antibiotics penetrate hematomas and devascularized tissue poorly, whereas local formulations achieve bactericidal concentrations directly at the contamination site. However, no veterinary clinical trials have established equivalent efficacy in dogs, and the human data do not support routine intrawound antibiotic use in clean canine procedures.

Host Factors and Transfusion Effects

Patient status modifies infection risk independent of antimicrobial choice. A clinical and immunologic study of 102 patients undergoing spinal fusion found that allogeneic blood transfusion was the only significant predictor of in-hospital infection in multivariate analysis, with transfused patients showing higher infection rates, longer hospital stays, and greater postoperative decline in natural killer cells. The immunomodulatory effect of allogeneic blood, sometimes termed transfusion-related immunomodulation, appears to suppress cell-mediated immunity during the critical postoperative window. For canine patients, this supports minimizing unnecessary transfusions and recognizing that anemic or immunosuppressed dogs carry higher infection risk that antibiotics alone will not mitigate.

Nonspecific immune enhancement has been tested in human surgery with disappointing results. A multicenter randomized trial of PGG-glucan, a yeast-derived phagocytosis enhancer, in 1,249 high-risk gastrointestinal surgery patients found no overall reduction in serious infection or death compared with placebo. The noncolorectal stratum showed a possible benefit, but the primary endpoint was negative. This evidence cautions against expecting immunostimulants to substitute for sound surgical technique and appropriate antimicrobial selection.

Stewardship Principles Applied to Surgery

Antimicrobial stewardship in the surgical setting rests on three obligations: use prophylaxis only when indicated, use the narrowest effective agent for the shortest effective duration, and culture before treating established infection. Professional guidance from the American Veterinary Medical Association emphasizes judicious use and resistance mitigation as core clinical responsibilities. Regulatory oversight from the FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine governs approved drug labeling and extralabel use, which matters when selecting agents for perioperative prophylaxis because few antimicrobials carry labeled indications for surgical prophylaxis in dogs.

The stewardship framework also requires documenting the rationale for every antimicrobial decision. A written indication, drug choice, dose, and anticipated duration creates accountability and facilitates review when resistance patterns emerge. Practices that track surgical site infection rates and antimicrobial use by procedure type can identify problems before they become patterns. This surveillance function is as important as any individual prescription decision.

Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Decision Framework

The decision to administer perioperative antibiotics in canine surgery rests on three variables: the surgical wound classification, the presence of implanted materials, and the anticipated duration of the procedure. Clean surgical procedures in healthy dogs with normal host defenses do not require prophylaxis. Clean-contaminated procedures, including those entering the oral cavity, respiratory tract, or urinary tract under controlled conditions, warrant prophylaxis when the procedure exceeds 90 minutes, when the patient has a compromised immune status, or when implants are placed. Contaminated and dirty procedures require therapeutic instead of prophylactic antibiotic administration.

The timing of the first dose is the most frequently violated element of prophylaxis. The antibiotic must reach tissue concentrations that exceed the minimum inhibitory concentration of likely contaminants before the incision is made. Administration should occur within 30 to 60 minutes prior to incision, with redosing intervals determined by the drug's half-life and the duration of surgery. A single preoperative dose suffices for most procedures lasting under 90 minutes. Procedures exceeding two hours, those with estimated blood loss above 20 percent of circulating volume, or those requiring massive fluid resuscitation warrant intraoperative redosing.

Patient status changes the calculus. Dogs with diabetes mellitus, hyperadrenocorticism, or chronic glucocorticoid therapy have impaired wound healing and reduced neutrophil function. These patients warrant prophylaxis for clean procedures that would otherwise not receive it. The same applies to dogs with body condition scores at either extreme, as malnutrition and obesity both impair immune function. The AVMA antimicrobial stewardship resources emphasize that prophylaxis decisions should incorporate patient-specific risk assessment instead of uniform protocols.

Local Antibiotic Delivery: Evidence and Application

Local antibiotic delivery has attracted attention in human spinal surgery, where intrawound vancomycin powder has been studied extensively. A retrospective review of 110 patients undergoing posterior spinal fusion for traumatic injuries reported reduced surgical site infections when vancomycin powder was added to systemic prophylaxis, as described in the study by O'Neill and colleagues. A subsequent prospective randomized trial of 907 spine surgery patients found no significant difference in infection rates between the group receiving systemic antibiotics alone and the group receiving intrawound vancomycin powder in addition to systemic prophylaxis, as reported in the trial by Tubaki and colleagues.

The discrepancy between these findings illustrates a broader principle. Retrospective studies are prone to confounding, and the positive result in the retrospective series may reflect differences in surgical technique, patient selection, or perioperative care instead of the vancomycin powder itself. The randomized trial, while more robust, was conducted in a single institution and may not generalize to other settings.

Experimental work in rabbits has shown that intrawound vancomycin powder can eradicate known bacterial contamination at the time of closure. The rabbit study by Zebala and colleagues inoculated surgical sites with Staphylococcus aureus and demonstrated that vancomycin powder placed before closure eliminated the contamination. Similarly, the rabbit study by Stall and colleagues showed that gentamicin delivered in controlled-release microspheres reduced implant-associated infection. These experimental models support the biological plausibility of local antibiotic delivery, but they do not establish clinical superiority over systemic prophylaxis alone.

For canine practice, local antibiotic delivery should be reserved for specific circumstances. These include revision surgeries in contaminated fields, implantation of permanent devices where infection would be catastrophic, and patients with known colonization by resistant organizms. The choice of local agent must account for the expected pathogens and the drug's local tissue toxicity. Vancomycin powder carries a risk of systemic absorption and nephrotoxicity, particularly in patients with preexisting renal disease. Gentamicin-impregnated beads or sponges provide sustained release but require removal in most formulations.

The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine regulates the extralabel use of drugs in animals. Local delivery of antibiotics not approved for this route constitutes extralabel use, and the prescribing veterinarian must ensure that appropriate withdrawal intervals are observed where applicable. Compounded antibiotic formulations require additional scrutiny regarding sterility, stability, and uniformity of drug distribution.

Postoperative Infection: Recognition and Initial Assessment

Postoperative infections typically present between days 3 and 7 after surgery, although implant-associated infections may present weeks to months later. The earliest signs are often subtle: persistent fever beyond 48 hours, incisional erythema that progresses instead of resolves, and serous discharge that becomes purulent. Pain out of proportion to the surgical site, lethargy, and anorexia accompany deeper infections.

The diagnostic sequence begins with a complete physical examination and a review of the surgical record. The duration of the procedure, the wound classification, the use of implants, and the timing of antibiotic administration all inform the differential diagnosis. A dog that received appropriate prophylaxis and developed infection within 48 hours suggests either a high inoculum, a resistant organizm, or a break in sterile technique. A dog that develops infection after day 7 raises the possibility of implant contamination or hematogenous seeding.

Diagnostic sampling precedes antibiotic administration whenever the patient is hemodynamically stable. Superficial swabs of draining tracts frequently yield contaminants instead of the causative pathogen. Aspiration of deep fluid collections, tissue biopsy from the wound margin, and culture of explanted material provide more reliable results. Aerobic and anaerobic cultures should be submitted, and antimicrobial susceptibility testing performed on all significant isolates.

Blood cultures are indicated when the patient is febrile, systemically ill, or when endocarditis is suspected. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides guidance on the interpretation of culture results and the distinction between true pathogens and contaminants. A single isolate of Staphylococcus pseudintermedius from a deep aspirate is significant. A mixed growth of environmental organizms from a superficial swab is not.

Treatment Algorithm for Postoperative Infection

The treatment algorithm branches on three factors: the depth of infection, the presence of implants, and the patient's systemic status.

Superficial incisional infections without systemic signs may be managed with local wound care and oral antibiotics selected on the basis of culture results. The incision should be opened, drained, and flushed with sterile saline. Necrotic tissue is debrided. Antibiotic therapy continues for 7 to 10 days, with reassessment at 48 to 72 hours to confirm clinical improvement.

Deep infections require surgical exploration. The wound is opened widely, all necrotic tissue is debrided, and the surgical site is lavaged with large volumes of sterile saline. Implants present a critical decision point. Infected implants are rarely salvageable once biofilm has formed. Removal is the definitive treatment, but the timing depends on fracture stability and the consequences of implant removal. A stable, healing fracture may tolerate early implant removal. An unstable fracture may require temporary external fixation while the infection is controlled.

Systemic antibiotics are initiated after cultures are obtained. Initial therapy is broad-spectrum, covering gram-positive and gram-negative aerobes as well as anaerobes. The regimen is narrowed once susceptibility results are available. The duration of therapy for deep infections is typically 4 to 6 weeks, with implant-associated infections requiring longer courses. Clinical response, serial inflammatory markers, and imaging guide the duration.

The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards address the responsible use of antimicrobial agents in animals. These standards emphasize that antimicrobial therapy should be based on culture and susceptibility testing whenever possible, that narrow-spectrum agents should be preferred, and that treatment should be discontinued when clinical cure is achieved.

Monitoring Parameters and Documentation

Monitoring serves two purposes: assessing response to therapy and detecting complications. Temperature, heart rate, respiratory rate, and incisional assessment are performed twice daily during hospitalization. A persistent fever beyond 72 hours of appropriate antibiotic therapy suggests inadequate drainage, a resistant organizm, or a drug fever. Incisional erythema that expands despite treatment indicates progressive infection.

Serial measurement of the leukogram and acute phase proteins, where available, provides objective evidence of response. A declining neutrophil count and normalization of band neutrophils indicate control of the infection. Persistent leukocytosis with a left shift warrants reevaluation of the surgical site and consideration of imaging to identify undrained collections.

Documentation must capture the indication for antibiotic use, the drug selected, the dose and route, the duration of therapy, and the basis for the selection. Culture results, susceptibility data, and the clinical response should be recorded in the medical record. This documentation supports antimicrobial stewardship by enabling retrospective review of prescribing patterns and outcomes. The AVMA practice resources provide templates and guidance for antimicrobial use documentation in clinical practice.

Monitoring parameters should also include assessment for adverse drug effects. Aminoglycosides require monitoring of renal function. Beta-lactam antibiotics may cause gastrointestinal signs. Fluoroquinolones carry a risk of cartilage injury in juvenile dogs. The monitoring plan should be tailored to the drug selected and the duration of therapy.

Recognized Complications and Early Detection

The principal failure modes in canine postoperative infection management are delayed recognition, inadequate source control, and antimicrobial selection that does not match the pathogen. Each is detectable before clinical deterioration if monitoring is structured.

Delayed recognition presents as progressive erythema, increasing incisional pain, or wound discharge beyond postoperative day three. The discriminating finding is a rising rectal temperature with a left shift on the leukogram, which distinguishes infection from normal postoperative inflammation. Serous discharge without heat or pain is more consistent with seroma formation than infection, and cytology showing degenerate neutrophils with intracellular bacteria confirms the diagnosis before culture results return.

Inadequate source control occurs when antimicrobial therapy is initiated without addressing the underlying nidus. A draining tract, nonviable tissue, or retained foreign material will not respond to systemic antibiotics alone. The corrective action is surgical exploration, debridement, and lavage before or concurrent with antimicrobial initiation. Imaging, including ultrasonography or computed tomography, may be needed to identify deep abscessation or implant-associated infection.

Antimicrobial mismatch arises when empirical therapy is chosen without culture. The most common error is selecting a first-generation cephalosporin for an infection that has developed after cephalosporin prophylaxis, which selects for resistant organizms. Culture and susceptibility testing from deep tissue or aspirated fluid, not surface swabs, should guide therapy whenever infection is confirmed.

Common Errors and Corrective Action

Less experienced clinicians frequently extend prophylaxis beyond the intraoperative period. Prophylactic antibiotics are indicated only for the duration of the procedure and, in selected cases, a short postoperative window. Continued administration without evidence of infection increases selection pressure and does not reduce infection rates. The corrective action is to define the stop time at surgery and document it.

A second error is treating every incisional abnormality with antibiotics. Suture reactions, seromas, and self-trauma produce inflammation that mimics infection. Cytology and clinical progression over 24 to 48 hours distinguish these from true infection. Antibiotics should be withheld until infection is confirmed or strongly suspected.

A third error is relying on surface swab cultures. These recover commensal skin flora and miss deep pathogens. Culture specimens should be obtained from tissue, pus, or implants during exploration. Anaerobic transport media are required when anaerobes are suspected, particularly after gastrointestinal or perianal surgery.

Limitations of Current Evidence

The evidence base for local antibiotic delivery in dogs is extrapolated largely from human spinal surgery. Prospective randomised data in humans show that intrawound vancomycin powder does not consistently reduce infection rates compared with systemic prophylaxis alone, with one large trial reporting no significant difference between groups Tubaki and colleagues, prospective randomised trial in 907 spine surgery patients. Earlier retrospective work suggested benefit O'Neill and colleagues, retrospective case review of vancomycin powder in posterior spinal fusion, but the discrepancy between retrospective and prospective findings limits confidence. Experimental rabbit models demonstrate that local vancomycin can eradicate known contamination Zebala and colleagues, in vivo rabbit study of intrawound vancomycin, yet these models do not replicate the full clinical context of canine surgery.

Expert opinion differs on whether local antibiotic delivery is appropriate for routine clean-contaminated procedures in dogs. Some clinicians reserve it for implant placement or revision surgery, while others avoid it entirely because of concerns about resistance selection and lack of canine-specific data. The evidence does not currently support routine use, and decisions should be made case by case.

Transfusion effects on postoperative infection are documented in human spinal surgery, where allogeneic transfusion independently predicted in-hospital infection Triulzi and colleagues, clinical and immunologic study of transfusion and postoperative infection. The relevance to canine practice is uncertain, but minimizing unnecessary transfusion is a reasonable precaution.

Referral, Consultation, and Reporting

Referral to a surgical specialist is warranted when infection involves implants, when repeated debridement is required, or when the wound cannot be closed primarily. Orthopedic implant infections often require implant removal or exchange, and the decision to retain or remove hardware should be made with a surgeon experienced in managing these complications.

Laboratory consultation is indicated when culture results show unusual organizms, when susceptibility testing reveals resistance to all first-line agents, or when the infection fails to respond to culture-guided therapy. A microbiology laboratory can also assist with interpretation of mixed cultures and with selection of additional testing such as molecular identification.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. The FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine provides information on adverse event reporting for animal drugs, and the AVMA antimicrobial stewardship resources outline professional expectations for judicious use. Veterinarians should be aware of their local requirements for reporting suspected adverse drug reactions or antimicrobial failures, particularly when extralabel drug use is involved. The WOAH terrestrial animal health standards address surveillance and reporting obligations that may apply in certain contexts.

Frequently Asked Questions

How should I manage perioperative prophylaxis when the surgery is prolonged or blood loss is substantial?

Redosing is the critical failure point in prolonged procedures. For most beta-lactams, redose at intervals of one to two times the drug half-life, or approximately every two hours of surgery time, whichever comes first. Substantial blood loss, defined as greater than 20 to 30 mL/kg, may necessitate an additional intraoperative dose because drug clearance accelerates and tissue concentrations fall. Consult the current formulary and label references for specific redosing intervals. The goal is to maintain tissue drug concentrations above the minimum inhibitory concentration for likely skin contaminants throughout the procedure and for the immediate postoperative period. Document the timing of each dose in the anesthetic record.

What can I do when culture and susceptibility testing is unavailable or delayed?

Empirical therapy must be guided by the local resistance profile and the clinical severity of the infection. If the patient is stable and the infection is superficial, consider delaying antimicrobial initiation until culture results return. If treatment cannot wait, collect deep tissue samples before starting therapy, then choose an agent with activity against methicillin-resistant staphylococci if local prevalence is high. Re-evaluate the choice when susceptibility data arrive and narrow the spectrum accordingly. The AVMA antimicrobial stewardship resources emphasize that culture-guided therapy is the preferred standard, but they also acknowledge that empirical decisions are sometimes unavoidable in practice.

How do I handle a suspected surgical site infection in a patient with known antimicrobial allergies?

First, confirm the allergy history. Many reported penicillin allergies are not true immunoglobulin E mediated reactions, and the risk of cross-reactivity with cephalosporins is lower than historically taught. If a beta-lactam is truly contraindicated, alternatives include clindamycin for gram-positive coverage or a fluoroquinolone combined with an agent covering anaerobes, depending on the surgical site and the suspected pathogen. The choice must be documented in the medical record with the rationale. For prophylaxis in a penicillin-allergic patient, consider whether the procedure even requires prophylaxis and whether a non-beta-lactam agent is justified. Consult the FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine animal drug information for approved labeling and extralabel use considerations.

What should I do if I cannot afford culture and susceptibility testing for a client?

Cost constraints are a legitimate barrier, but they do not justify abandoning stewardship principles. Discuss the trade-off explicitly with the client: empirical therapy may fail, require multiple courses, or promote resistance. Offer a tiered approach. Submit a single deep tissue sample for aerobic culture only, which is less expensive than full aerobic and anaerobic panels. If even that is unaffordable, document the limitation in the record and choose an empirical agent with the narrowest spectrum likely to be effective. Reassess the patient at 48 to 72 hours and be willing to change course if there is no clinical response. The MSD Veterinary Manual provides guidance on interpreting culture results and selecting empirical therapy when susceptibility data are absent.

How should I explain the decision to withhold antibiotics to a concerned owner?

Owners often expect antibiotics after any surgical procedure. Explain that antibiotics are not a substitute for surgical technique and that unnecessary use selects for resistant bacteria that may harm their pet later. Use concrete language: the surgical site was closed under sterile conditions, and antibiotics are reserved for cases where infection is confirmed or strongly suspected. If the owner remains anxious, offer a concrete monitoring plan with specific signs to watch for, such as increasing swelling, discharge, or pain. Schedule a recheck examination instead of prescribing prophylactic antibiotics to appease the owner. The AVMA practice resources offer client communication materials that frame antimicrobial stewardship as a patient safety issue, not a cost-saving measure.

How does my approach change for a dog that develops a postoperative infection after implant placement?

Implant-associated infections are a distinct clinical entity. Bacteria form biofilms on metal and bone cement, and systemic antibiotics alone rarely eradicate the infection. The decision to remove the implant depends on fracture healing stage, implant function, and infection chronicity. If the fracture has healed, implant removal is often curative. If the implant must stay, plan for long-term suppressive therapy after an initial course of high-dose bactericidal treatment. Obtain deep tissue and implant surface cultures at the time of any surgical intervention. Local antibiotic delivery, such as antibiotic-impregnated beads or cement, may be considered as an adjunct, although the evidence base in veterinary medicine is limited and extrapolated from human spinal surgery literature. Document the discussion with the owner regarding the risks of retained hardware.

Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

• Veterinary Formulary Essentials: Navigating Drug References
• Drug Interactions with Antiepileptic Drugs in Veterinary Patients: Managing Polypharmacy
• Drug Interactions with Corticosteroids in Veterinary Patients: A Comprehensive Review

References and Further Reading

• Reduced surgical site infections in patients undergoing posterior spinal stabilization of traumatic injuries using vancomycin powder.. 2011.
• Effects of using intravenous antibiotic only versus local intrawound vancomycin antibiotic powder application in addition to intravenous antibiotics on postoperative infection in spine surgery in 907 patients.. 2013.
• A clinical and immunologic study of blood transfusion and postoperative bacterial infection in spinal surgery.. 1992.
• Intrawound vancomycin powder eradicates surgical wound contamination: an in vivo rabbit study.. 2014.
• Reduction of postoperative spinal implant infection using gentamicin microspheres.. 2009.
• Effect of PGG-glucan on the rate of serious postoperative infection or death observed after high-risk gastrointestinal operations. Betafectin Gastrointestinal Study Group.. 1999.
• FDA Center for Veterinary Medicine: Animal Drug Information. FDA CVM.
• AVMA Antimicrobial Use and Stewardship. American Veterinary Medical Association.
• MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition. MSD Veterinary Manual.

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• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Canine Diarrhea: When Antibiotics Are Not the Answer
• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Canine Periodontal Disease: Antibiotic Use in Dentistry
• Antimicrobial Stewardship in Feline Respiratory Infections: When Antibiotics Are Needed

This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.