Sheep Care: Health Checks and Routine Management

Routine sheep care depends on daily observation, scheduled handling, and accurate records that connect management decisions to measurable health outcomes. This guide covers the core elements of a practical health program for sheep flocks, including daily checks, hoof care, vaccination planning, parasite control, and the records that support each decision. The content is written for farmers, farm employees, veterinarians, advisers, students, and farm planners who need a working reference for flock health management.

At a Glance

The table below summarizes the main routine care tasks, their recommended frequency, and the key observations that should trigger further investigation or professional advice.

The Purpose of Routine Health Checks

Routine health checks are the foundation of flock health management because they allow early detection of problems before they become widespread. Sheep are prey animals and often mask signs of illness until the condition is advanced. Daily observation from a distance, followed by closer inspection when needed, gives the stockperson the best chance of identifying sick animals early.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations provides resources on animal production and health that emphasize the importance of preventive management in livestock systems. Preventive care reduces the need for treatment and limits the economic and welfare costs of disease outbreaks. The World Organisation for Animal Health also addresses animal health and welfare standards that support routine monitoring as a core responsibility of livestock keepers.

A routine health check should include observation of behavior, appetite, rumination, respiration, gait, and the condition of the fleece, skin, eyes, nose, mouth, feet, and udder. Changes in any of these areas can indicate developing health problems. The stockperson should know the normal appearance and behavior of the flock so that deviations are noticed quickly.

Daily Observation and Individual Animal Checks

Daily observation is the first line of defense in sheep health management. The stockperson should walk through the flock at least once daily, ideally at the same time each day, to establish a baseline for normal behavior. Observations should be made quietly and from a distance first, then followed by closer inspection of any animal that appears abnormal.

What to Look For During Daily Observation

Behavioral changes are often the earliest signs of illness. A healthy sheep is alert, responsive, and interested in feed. Sick sheep may stand apart from the group, lie down more than usual, show reduced interest in feed or water, or lag behind when the flock moves. Changes in vocalization, such as increased bleating, can indicate distress, pain, or separation from lambs.

Physical signs to check include the following:

• Eyes should be bright and free of discharge. Pale or yellow mucous membranes can indicate anemia or liver problems.
• The nose should be clean and free of excessive discharge.
• Respiration should be quiet and regular. Labored breathing, coughing, or nasal discharge can indicate respiratory disease.
• The fleece should be intact and free of excessive dirt, moisture, or signs of external parasites such as lice or mites.
• The skin should be free of lumps, scabs, or areas of hair loss.
• The feet should be examined for lameness, swelling, or overgrowth.
• The udder in ewes should be checked for heat, swelling, or signs of mastitis.
• The body condition should be assessed regularly using a standardized scoring system.

Handling and Restraint for Closer Inspection

When closer inspection is needed, sheep should be handled calmly and with minimal stress. Simple restraint in a corner of a pen or a handling race is often sufficient for visual examination. For procedures such as hoof trimming or injection, a tilt table or turning cradle may be needed to allow safe access to the feet and other areas.

The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare that cover handling and care practices. Safe handling protects both the stockperson and the animal. Sheep that are handled roughly or with excessive force become stressed, which can affect their health and productivity.

Hoof Care and Lameness Management

Lameness is one of the most common and costly health problems in sheep flocks. It affects welfare, reduces weight gain, and can lead to premature culling. Routine hoof inspection and trimming are essential components of a lameness control program.

Causes of Lameness

Lameness in sheep can result from several causes, including footrot, scald, abscesses, trauma, and overgrown hooves. Footrot is a bacterial infection that causes separation of the hoof horn and a characteristic foul odor. Scald is a milder form of the same infection that affects the skin between the claws. Both conditions are more common in wet, muddy conditions where bacteria can survive and spread.

Overgrown hooves are a management-related cause of lameness. Sheep that are kept on soft ground or in confinement may not wear their hooves down naturally, leading to excessive growth that alters the angle of the foot and causes discomfort. Regular trimming prevents this problem.

Hoof Trimming Technique

Hoof trimming should be done carefully to avoid cutting into sensitive tissue. The goal is to remove excess horn and restore the normal shape of the foot. The stockperson should use sharp, clean hoof trimmers and work in good light.

The following steps describe a safe trimming procedure:

1. Restrain the sheep securely using a tilt table, turning cradle, or manual restraint.
2. Clean the foot to remove dirt and debris so that the hoof structure is visible.
3. Trim the excess wall and sole using small cuts. Work from the toe toward the heel.
4. Avoid cutting into the sensitive laminae, which appear pink and moist. Cutting into this tissue causes pain and bleeding.
5. Shape the foot so that the sole is level and the toe is slightly shorter than the heel.
6. Inspect the foot for signs of infection, abscess, or foreign bodies.
7. Apply a footbath treatment if the flock has a history of footrot or scald.

Footbathing and Treatment

Footbathing is a useful tool for controlling footrot and scald in affected flocks. Sheep are walked through a footbath solution after trimming so that the solution reaches the interdigital skin. The frequency of footbathing depends on the level of infection in the flock and the environmental conditions.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration provides resources on animal and veterinary topics, including the regulation of products used for animal treatment. Any footbath chemical or topical treatment should be used according to the manufacturer's instructions and any applicable regulations.

When to Escalate Lameness to a Veterinarian

Lameness that does not respond to routine trimming and footbathing should be investigated by a veterinarian. Signs that warrant professional advice include the following:

• Lameness persisting for more than a few days after corrective trimming
• Multiple animals becoming lame within a short period
• Swelling or heat extending above the hoof
• Visible abscesses or deep infections
• Lameness associated with weight loss or reduced milk production

A veterinarian can diagnose the specific cause of lameness and recommend an appropriate treatment and control plan. In some cases, lameness may be caused by conditions that require surgical treatment or systemic medication.

Vaccination Programs

Vaccination is a key component of preventive sheep health care. A well-planned vaccination program reduces the risk of infectious diseases and supports flock productivity. The specific vaccines used depend on the diseases present in the local area, the production system, and the management goals of the farm.

Common Vaccines for Sheep

Several vaccines are commonly used in sheep flocks, depending on regional disease risks. These may include vaccines against clostridial diseases, footrot, abortion-causing agents, and respiratory pathogens. The veterinarian should advise on which vaccines are appropriate for the specific flock based on local disease prevalence and the farm's history.

Clostridial vaccines are among the most widely used in sheep production. These vaccines protect against diseases such as enterotoxemia, tetanus, and blackleg, which are caused by bacteria that can survive in the environment for long periods. The vaccination schedule typically involves an initial course of two doses followed by annual boosters.

Vaccination Timing and Handling

The timing of vaccination is important for ensuring adequate immunity. Ewes are often vaccinated in late pregnancy to boost antibody levels in colostrum, providing passive immunity to lambs. Lambs are then vaccinated according to the schedule recommended by the veterinarian, which may involve an initial course followed by boosters.

Vaccines should be handled according to the manufacturer's instructions. Most vaccines require refrigeration and protection from light. Expired or improperly stored vaccines should not be used. The stockperson should record the vaccine batch number, date of administration, and the animals treated.

The World Organisation for Animal Health provides information on animal health and welfare that supports the use of vaccination as part of a comprehensive disease prevention program. Vaccination should be combined with biosecurity measures, good nutrition, and appropriate housing to achieve the best results.

Adverse Reactions and Escalation

Adverse reactions to vaccination are uncommon but can occur. Signs may include swelling at the injection site, fever, reduced appetite, or in rare cases, anaphylaxis. The stockperson should observe animals for a short period after vaccination and report any unusual reactions to the veterinarian.

If disease occurs despite vaccination, the veterinarian should investigate the cause. Possible explanations include incomplete vaccination coverage, improper vaccine handling, challenge from a different strain of the pathogen, or immunosuppression due to other factors such as poor nutrition or concurrent disease.

Parasite Control

Internal and external parasites are a major constraint to sheep production in many regions. Parasites reduce weight gain, lower milk production, damage the fleece, and can cause death in severe cases. An effective parasite control program requires an understanding of the parasite species present, their life cycles, and the tools available for their control.

Internal Parasites

Gastrointestinal nematodes are the most important internal parasites of sheep in many production systems. These worms live in the digestive tract and cause damage to the lining of the gut, leading to poor nutrient absorption, weight loss, diarrhea, and anemia. The severity of infection depends on the parasite species, the number of worms, and the nutritional status of the animal.

The epidemiology of internal parasites is influenced by climate, grazing management, and host factors. Warm, moist conditions favor the development and survival of larvae on pasture. Sheep that are under nutritional stress or have reduced immunity, such as ewes around lambing, are more susceptible to infection.

A study of cestode and trematode infections in sheep in northwestern Ethiopia found an overall prevalence of 50 percent, with trematodes more common than cestodes. The study identified adult age, poor body condition, and extensive management systems as factors associated with infection. The economic losses were attributed mainly to mortality and reduced body weight. This research illustrates the importance of parasite control in sheep production systems and the need for management strategies that address the specific parasite risks in each region.

Anthelmintic Resistance

Anthelmintic resistance is a growing problem in sheep production worldwide. Resistance occurs when worms survive treatment and pass their genes to the next generation. Over time, the proportion of resistant worms in the population increases, and the treatment becomes less effective.

A report on the lack of efficacy of monepantel against trichostrongyle nematodes in a UK sheep flock highlights the reality of anthelmintic resistance. This case demonstrates that no anthelmintic class can be assumed to remain effective indefinitely. Flocks should be monitored for treatment efficacy using fecal egg count reduction testing, and treatment decisions should be based on the results.

Targeted Selective Treatment

Targeted selective treatment is an approach that involves treating only the animals that need treatment, instead of treating the entire flock. This strategy reduces the selection pressure for anthelmintic resistance and lowers treatment costs. The decision to treat is based on indicators such as fecal egg counts, body condition score, or a combination of factors.

Fecal egg counting is a practical tool for monitoring parasite burdens and making treatment decisions. The McMaster method is a standard technique for estimating the number of eggs per gram of feces. Samples should be collected fresh and processed promptly for accurate results.

External Parasites

External parasites such as lice, mites, and flies can cause significant irritation, damage to the fleece, and reduced productivity. Sheep with external parasites may show signs of itching, rubbing, wool break, or patches of hair loss. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates products used for the control of external parasites, and treatments should be used according to the label instructions.

The Cholinesterase Research Outreach Project examined the use of organophosphate insecticides in Australian agricultural communities, including their use for sheep dipping, jetting, and drenching. The project highlighted the importance of monitoring cholinesterase activity in people who work with these chemicals, as regular monitoring can help identify potential exposure and improve safety practices. This research underscores the need for careful handling of parasite control products to protect both animal and human health.

Integrated Parasite Control

Effective parasite control requires an integrated approach that combines several strategies:

• Grazing management to reduce pasture contamination
• Monitoring parasite burdens through fecal egg counting
• Targeted treatment of animals that need it
• Use of anthelmintics from different classes according to a planned rotation
• Quarantine treatment of new animals entering the flock
• Good nutrition to support the immune system
• Genetic selection for resistance to parasites

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations provides resources on animal production that support sustainable parasite control approaches. These resources emphasize the importance of adapting control strategies to local conditions and monitoring their effectiveness over time.

Body Condition Scoring

Body condition scoring is a practical method for assessing the nutritional status of sheep. The technique involves feeling the amount of muscle and fat over the backbone and loin area to assign a score on a scale, typically from 1 to 5. A score of 1 indicates severe emaciation, while a score of 5 indicates obesity.

How to Score Body Condition

The sheep should be restrained so that the loin area is accessible. The stockperson places one hand on the backbone and uses the fingers to feel the spinous processes and the transverse processes of the vertebrae. The amount of fat cover over these structures determines the score.

The following descriptions provide a guide to the scoring system:

• Score 1: The spinous processes are sharp and prominent. The transverse processes are also sharp, and there is no fat cover.
• Score 2: The spinous processes are prominent but less sharp. The transverse processes are rounded, and there is a thin layer of fat.
• Score 3: The spinous processes are smooth and rounded. The transverse processes are covered with a moderate layer of fat.
• Score 4: The spinous processes are only detectable with pressure. The transverse processes are covered with a thick layer of fat.
• Score 5: The spinous processes cannot be detected. The transverse processes are covered with a very thick layer of fat.

Using Body Condition Scores in Management

Body condition scores should be assessed at key points in the production cycle, including before mating, during pregnancy, and at weaning. The target score depends on the production stage. Ewes that are too thin at mating may have reduced fertility, while ewes that are too fat may have difficulty lambing.

Body condition scoring is a skill that improves with practice. The stockperson should calibrate their scoring technique with an experienced assessor or veterinarian to ensure consistency. Records of body condition scores should be kept for individual animals or groups so that changes can be tracked over time.

Records and Monitoring

Accurate records are essential for effective flock health management. Records allow the stockperson to identify trends, evaluate the effectiveness of treatments, and make informed decisions about management changes. The level of detail in the records should match the needs of the farm, but some information should be recorded consistently.

Essential Records for Flock Health

The following records should be maintained for each flock or group:

• Animal identification and individual history
• Dates of vaccination and the vaccine used
• Dates of anthelmintic treatment and the product used
• Fecal egg count results
• Body condition scores at key production stages
• Lameness cases and treatments
• Illness and mortality records
• Lambing records, including birth weights and any assistance required
• Treatment records, including the product, dose, and withdrawal period

A detailed questionnaire for the evaluation of health management in dairy sheep and goats provides a framework for assessing the completeness of health records and management practices. The use of such a tool can help identify gaps in record keeping and areas where management could be improved.

Using Records to Make Decisions

Records are only useful if they are reviewed and used to inform decisions. The stockperson should review health records regularly to identify patterns. For example, if lameness cases increase during wet periods, the management plan should include measures to reduce exposure to muddy conditions. If fecal egg counts rise after a particular treatment, the effectiveness of the anthelmintic should be investigated.

The reuse of routinely obtained laboratory data in research, as discussed in a study on electronic health records, highlights the importance of understanding the context behind data. The same principle applies to farm records. The stockperson should understand the limitations of the data they collect and interpret it with appropriate caution.

Digital and Paper Records

Records can be kept on paper or in digital form. Digital records offer the advantage of easier analysis and backup, but paper records are simple and require no special equipment. The choice depends on the preferences of the stockperson and the resources available. The important thing is that records are accurate, complete, and accessible.

Biosecurity and Flock Health

Biosecurity refers to the measures taken to prevent the introduction and spread of disease within a flock. A good biosecurity program reduces the risk of disease outbreaks and supports the overall health of the flock.

Key Biosecurity Measures

The following measures are important components of a biosecurity program:

• Quarantine new animals before introducing them to the main flock
• Control visitor access to the farm and provide clean footwear and clothing
• Clean and disinfect equipment between groups of animals
• Manage manure and deadstock appropriately
• Control rodents, birds, and other wildlife that can carry disease
• Source animals from herds with known health status

The USDA Agricultural Research Service conducts research on animal production and protection that supports the development of biosecurity measures. This research helps identify the most effective ways to prevent disease introduction and spread.

Quarantine Procedures

New animals should be kept separate from the main flock for a period that allows observation for signs of disease. The quarantine period also provides an opportunity to treat the animals for internal and external parasites and to complete any necessary vaccinations. The length of the quarantine period depends on the diseases of concern and the health status of the source flock.

During quarantine, the animals should be monitored daily for signs of illness. Fecal samples should be collected and tested for parasites. The animals should only be introduced to the main flock after they are confirmed to be healthy and after any necessary treatments have been completed.

Welfare Considerations

Animal welfare is an important consideration in sheep management. Good welfare is also an ethical obligation but also supports productivity and reduces the risk of disease. The World Organisation for Animal Health provides standards and guidelines for animal welfare that are relevant to sheep production.

Pain Management in Routine Procedures

Some routine husbandry procedures cause pain to sheep. Research on pain relief interventions in Australian livestock husbandry has shown that pain behaviors can persist for days or weeks after routine procedures. The study recommended providing pain relief for at least 72 hours after surgery, but noted that current products often require retreatment intervals to achieve this duration.

The stockperson should consider whether routine procedures can be avoided or modified to reduce pain. When procedures are necessary, appropriate pain relief should be provided according to veterinary advice. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulates the use of pain relief products in animals, and these products should be used according to the label instructions.

Welfare Assessment

Welfare assessment involves evaluating the physical and behavioral state of the animals to identify potential welfare problems. A comparative study of sheep welfare in extensive, semi-extensive, and semi-intensive production systems found that management practices varied significantly between systems and had diverse impacts on welfare. The study identified painful mutilations as a primary welfare concern in extensive farms and found higher rates of tail docking and poorer fleece cleanliness in semi-extensive and semi-intensive farms.

The study concluded that achieving sustainable welfare outcomes requires an integrated approach that combines genetic suitability, adequate housing, and effective management practices. The stockperson should regularly assess the welfare of the flock and address any issues that are identified.

Mastitis and Udder Health

Mastitis is an inflammation of the udder that can be caused by bacterial infection. It is an important cause of economic loss in sheep flocks due to reduced milk production, premature culling, and the cost of treatment. Subclinical mastitis, which does not produce visible signs, is particularly problematic because it can go undetected.

Detecting Mastitis

Clinical mastitis is characterized by visible changes in the udder, such as heat, swelling, redness, or pain. The milk may appear abnormal, with clots, discoloration, or a watery consistency. The ewe may show signs of systemic illness, such as fever, reduced appetite, or reluctance to allow the lambs to suckle.

Subclinical mastitis is detected through testing. The California Mastitis Test is a simple on-farm test that detects elevated somatic cell counts in milk. Somatic cell counts are also used as an indicator of udder health in milk quality testing programs.

A cross-sectional study of raw milk quality and subclinical mastitis burden in small ruminant farms in northwestern Greece found that only 10 percent of farms met the healthy threshold for somatic cell count, while 26.2 percent exceeded the EU limit. The study found that farmers had low levels of formal education, only 14.3 percent had regular veterinary support, and only 34.9 percent practiced post-milking teat dipping. These findings highlight the importance of education and veterinary support in controlling mastitis.

Preventing Mastitis

Prevention of mastitis involves several measures:

• Maintaining clean, dry bedding in lambing and milking areas
• Ensuring proper hygiene during milking
• Practicing post-milking teat dipping
• Treating clinical cases promptly and completely
• Culling chronic cases that do not respond to treatment
• Monitoring somatic cell counts to detect subclinical cases

The use of antibiotics against bacterial infections on dairy sheep and goat farms is an important consideration in mastitis control. Antibiotics should be used judiciously and according to veterinary advice to minimize the risk of resistance and ensure that milk withdrawal periods are observed.

Common Failure Patterns in Sheep Health Management

Understanding common failure patterns can help the stockperson avoid mistakes and improve the effectiveness of the health program. The following patterns are frequently observed in sheep flocks.

Inconsistent Observation

The most common failure in sheep health management is inconsistent observation. When daily checks are skipped or rushed, early signs of illness are missed, and conditions become more severe before they are detected. The stockperson should establish a routine that ensures the flock is observed at the same time each day, and the observations should be recorded.

Incomplete Vaccination Coverage

Vaccination programs fail when not all animals receive the full course of vaccines. This can happen when animals are missed during handling, when records are not kept, or when the vaccination schedule is not followed. The stockperson should maintain accurate records of which animals have been vaccinated and when.

Ineffective Parasite Control

Parasite control programs fail when they rely on a single strategy, such as routine treatment with one anthelmintic. This approach selects for resistant worms and eventually leads to treatment failure. An integrated approach that combines monitoring, targeted treatment, and grazing management is more sustainable.

Poor Record Keeping

Without accurate records, it is impossible to evaluate the effectiveness of the health program or to identify trends. The stockperson should maintain records that are complete, accurate, and reviewed regularly.

Delayed Veterinary Involvement

Some health problems require professional diagnosis and treatment. Delaying veterinary involvement can allow conditions to worsen and increase the cost of treatment. The stockperson should have clear criteria for when to call the veterinarian and should not hesitate to seek advice when needed.

Safety Considerations for Sheep Handlers

Working with sheep involves risks to the handler, including injury from handling equipment, exposure to chemicals, and zoonotic diseases. The stockperson should be aware of these risks and take appropriate precautions.

Safe Handling Practices

Sheep should be handled calmly and quietly to reduce stress and the risk of injury. The handler should wear appropriate clothing and footwear, including sturdy boots with good grip. Handling facilities should be well-maintained and designed to minimize the risk of injury to both animals and people.

Chemical Safety

Products used for parasite control, footbathing, and other treatments can be hazardous if not handled properly. The stockperson should read and follow the label instructions, wear appropriate protective equipment, and store chemicals safely. The Cholinesterase Research Outreach Project highlighted the importance of monitoring exposure to organophosphate insecticides in agricultural workers. Regular monitoring of cholinesterase activity can help identify potential exposure and improve safety practices.

Zoonotic Disease Risks

Some diseases can be transmitted from sheep to humans. These include orf, Q fever, and certain parasitic infections. The stockperson should practice good hygiene, including washing hands after handling animals, wearing gloves when handling placental tissues or treating wounds, and seeking medical advice if illness occurs after contact with sheep.

Professional Escalation Criteria

The stockperson should know when to seek professional advice. The following situations warrant veterinary involvement:

• Sudden death of multiple animals
• Severe illness in a single animal that does not respond to treatment
• Lameness affecting multiple animals or persisting despite treatment
• Mastitis cases that do not respond to treatment
• Poor response to anthelmintic treatment, suggesting resistance
• Unusual signs or symptoms that are not consistent with common conditions
• Any condition that requires a diagnosis beyond the stockperson's experience

The veterinarian can provide a diagnosis, recommend treatment, and help develop a control plan. Early veterinary involvement is often more cost-effective than delayed treatment, as it can prevent the spread of disease and reduce the severity of outbreaks.

Frequently Asked Questions

How often should I check my sheep for signs of illness?

Sheep should be observed at least once daily, ideally at the same time each day. During lambing, in hot weather, or when the flock is under stress, checks should be more frequent. Daily observation allows early detection of illness, which improves the chances of successful treatment and reduces the risk of disease spreading through the flock.

What is the best way to trim sheep hooves?

The sheep should be restrained securely, and the foot should be cleaned before trimming. Use sharp, clean hoof trimmers and work in small cuts from the toe toward the heel. Avoid cutting into the sensitive laminae, which appear pink and moist. After trimming, inspect the foot for signs of infection and apply a footbath treatment if the flock has a history of footrot or scald.

How do I know which vaccines my sheep need?

The vaccines needed depend on the diseases present in your local area, your production system, and your management goals. Your veterinarian can advise on the appropriate vaccination program based on local disease prevalence and your farm's history. Common vaccines include those against clostridial diseases, footrot, and abortion-causing agents.

How can I tell if my anthelmintic is still working?

Fecal egg count reduction testing is the standard method for evaluating anthelmintic efficacy. Fecal samples are collected before and after treatment, and the egg counts are compared. If the treatment does not reduce the egg count by the expected amount, resistance may be present, and the veterinarian should be consulted.

What is body condition scoring and why is it important?

Body condition scoring is a method for assessing the nutritional status of sheep by feeling the amount of muscle and fat over the backbone and loin. It is important because it allows the stockperson to identify animals that are too thin or too fat and to adjust feeding accordingly. Scores should be assessed at key production stages, including before mating, during pregnancy, and at weaning.

How long should new sheep be quarantined?

The quarantine period should be long enough to allow observation for signs of disease and to complete any necessary treatments. A minimum of two to four weeks is commonly recommended, but the length depends on the diseases of concern and the health status of the source flock. During quarantine, the animals should be monitored daily and tested for parasites.

What are the signs of mastitis in sheep?

Clinical mastitis causes visible changes in the udder, such as heat, swelling, redness, or pain. The milk may appear abnormal, with clots, discoloration, or a watery consistency. The ewe may show signs of systemic illness, such as fever or reduced appetite. Subclinical mastitis is detected through testing, such as the California Mastitis Test or somatic cell count measurement.

When should I call the veterinarian?

Call the veterinarian when you have a situation that is beyond your experience or that does not respond to routine management. This includes sudden death of multiple animals, severe illness, lameness that persists despite treatment, mastitis that does not respond, poor response to anthelmintics, or any unusual signs. Early veterinary involvement is often more cost-effective than delayed treatment.

Related Farming Guides

• Sheep Flock Health Planning: Vaccination, Biosecurity, and Monitoring
• Alpaca and Llama Hoof Care: Trimming, Foot Health, and Lameness Prevention
• Integrated Parasite Management in Sheep
• Swine Parasite Monitoring and Control
• Poultry Internal Parasite Monitoring and Control

References and Further Reading

• FAO Animal Production and Health. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
• Animal Health and Welfare. USDA National Agricultural Library.
• Animal and Veterinary Resources. U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
• Animal Health and Welfare. World Organisation for Animal Health.
• Animal Production and Protection. USDA Agricultural Research Service.
• Lanolin.. 2006.
• Antenatal corticosteroids for accelerating fetal lung maturation for women at risk of preterm birth.. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews, 2017.
• A Wolf in Sheep's Clothing: Reuse of Routinely Obtained Laboratory Data in Research.. Journal of medical Internet research, 2022.
• Experimental Models for Testing the Efficacy of Pharmacological Treatments for Neonatal Hypoxic-Ischemic Encephalopathy.. Biomedicines, 2022.
• Pain Relief Interventions in Australian Livestock Husbandry: A Review of Animal Welfare and Pain Duration.. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2024.
• The human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs): implications for dental practitioners.. British dental journal, 2000.
• Transdermal delivery of antenatal steroids to promote fetal lung maturation: Proof of principle data from sheep and non-human primate models.. BMC medicine, 2025.
• Role of rural school nurses in asthma management.. Paediatric drugs, 2001.
• PSVII-27 FAO-Honduras: Training producers and technicians in sheep management practices to enhance extension capabilities and strengthen food security concepts among college students. 2024.
• Cestode and Trematode Infections in Sheep: Epidemiology, Economic Impact, and Control Strategies in Gondar, Central Gondar zone, Northwestern Ethiopia. 2026.
• Comparative On-Farm Welfare Assessment of Sheep in Extensive, Semi-Extensive, and Semi-Intensive Systems.. 2026.
• Raw Milk Quality and Subclinical Mastitis Burden in Small Ruminant Farms in Northwestern Greece: A Cross-Sectional Study.. 2026.
• Profile of bacterial pathogens contaminating hands of healthcare workers during daily routine care of patients at a tertiary hospital in northern Nigeria. 2021.
• RBRVS costing: the inaccurate wolf in expensive sheep's clothing.. Journal of Health Care Finance, 2008.
• Cholinesterase Research Outreach Project (CROP): measuring cholinesterase activity and pesticide use in an agricultural community. BMC Public Health, 2015.
• Facilitators and barriers to the implementation of prehabilitation for frail patients into routine health care: a realist review. BMC Health Services Research, 2024.
• Lack of efficacy of monepantel against trichostrongyle nematodes in a UK sheep flock. Veterinary Parasitology, 2018.
• Use of Antibiotics Against Bacterial Infections on Dairy Sheep and Goat Farms: Patterns of Usage and Associations with Health Management and Human Resources. Antibiotics, 2022.
• Herd health and reproductive management associated with lamb weight gain and mortality in sub-Saharan drylands-a case from Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2023.
• A detailed questionnaire for the evaluation of health management in dairy sheep and goats. Animals, 2020.

This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.