# Is Milkweed Toxic to Dogs and Cats? Signs and What to Do Milkweed is toxic to dogs and cats. Every part of the plant, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers, sap, and seed pods, contains cardiac glycosides known as cardenolides. These compounds inhibit the sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+-ATPase) inside cells, and that single molecular action explains almost everything that follows: vomiting and diarrhea first, then, with larger exposures, dangerous heart rhythms and high blood potassium [1][2]. The practical news is better than the toxicology suggests. Most pet exposures to milkweed are small, and most plant poisonings in pets produce mild to moderate signs rather than death [3]. A dog that grabs one leaf while you are weeding is usually a phone call, not a catastrophe. A dog that eats a large quantity of plant material, or a cat that chews a potted milkweed indoors, is a genuine emergency that needs a veterinarian immediately. **Owner triage summary:** - **Small nibble, pet is normal:** Call your veterinarian or a pet poison hotline now for guidance. Do not wait for signs to appear. - **Any vomiting, diarrhea, drooling, wobbliness, or a slow or racing heartbeat:** Go to a veterinary emergency hospital now. - **Large ingestion, or the pet is collapsing, having seizures, or breathing abnormally:** This is a life-threatening emergency. Go now and bring plant material or a photo of the plant with you. - **Do not induce vomiting at home unless a veterinarian tells you to.** This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. ## At a Glance: Milkweed Exposure in Dogs and Cats | Question | Short answer | |--|--| | Is milkweed poisonous to dogs? | Yes. All Asclepias species contain cardenolides, and the ASPCA lists milkweed as toxic to dogs [4]. | | Is milkweed toxic to cats? | Yes. Cats are also susceptible, and Pet Poison Helpline lists milkweed as toxic to cats as well as dogs [5]. | | Which parts are toxic? | All parts: leaves, stems, roots, flowers, sap, and seed pods. Dried plant material in hay or garden debris remains a risk [6][7]. | | What are the first signs? | Vomiting, diarrhea, drooling, and abdominal discomfort, caused by direct gastrointestinal irritation [1]. | | What are the dangerous signs? | Slow or irregular heart rate, heart block, ventricular arrhythmias, weakness, collapse, and hyperkalemia (high blood potassium) [1][8]. | | How serious is a typical exposure? | Most plant poisonings in pets cause mild to moderate signs, and many small exposures need monitoring rather than intensive treatment [3]. | | What is the antidote for severe cases? | Digoxin-specific immune Fab fragments, which bind cardiac glycosides and have been used successfully in dogs with severe cardiac glycoside toxicosis [9][10]. | | Can I keep a monarch garden with pets? | Yes, with planning: fence or barrier the milkweed patch, supervise outdoor time, and keep cut stems and seed pods out of reach [11]. | ## Why Milkweed Is Toxic: The Cardenolide Mechanism Milkweed belongs to the genus Asclepias. Plants in this genus produce cardenolides, a family of cardiac glycosides that includes compounds such as ouabain, digoxin, and digitoxin analogs [2]. These molecules are chemically similar to the drugs digoxin and digitoxin, which is why cardiac glycoside poisoning is often described as digitalis-like toxicity [12]. The target is the sodium-potassium ATPase, the enzyme that maintains the electrical gradient across every cell membrane. Cardiac glycosides bind this pump and shut it down [1][2]. In the heart, that disruption changes how cardiac muscle cells conduct electrical signals, which produces bradycardia (abnormally slow heart rate), atrioventricular block, and ventricular dysrhythmias [1]. In the gut, direct contact with plant material and the toxin itself causes irritation, which is why vomiting and diarrhea are often the earliest signs [1]. The same mechanism explains hyperkalemia. When the sodium-potassium pump fails, potassium leaks out of cells into the bloodstream, and a high serum potassium level can itself destabilize the heart [1]. This is why a veterinarian treating cardiac glycoside poisoning watches both the electrocardiogram and the potassium level. Milkweed is not the only cardiac glycoside plant a pet can encounter. Oleander (Nerium oleander), lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis), yellow oleander (Thevetia peruviana), and several other ornamentals contain related compounds [12][13]. The clinical picture is similar, and the treatment principles overlap. Milkweed's cardenolides have been measured directly in Asclepias species including redheaded cotton-bush (Asclepias curassavica) and balloon cotton (Asclepias fruiticosa) [13]. An Italian survey of plant poisonings in domestic animals found that dogs accounted for 61.8 percent of calls [3] and cats for 26 percent [3], and that glycoside-containing plants were among the most frequently implicated groups [3]. That survey did not isolate milkweed specifically, but it confirms the general pattern: pets eat ornamental and garden plants, and cardiac glycoside plants are a recurring cause. ## Which Parts of the Milkweed Plant Are Toxic? Every part of the plant is toxic. Leaves, stems, roots, flowers, sap, and seed pods all contain cardenolides. The milky white sap that gives milkweed its name is particularly concentrated, and it is the reason gardeners often notice skin irritation after handling the plant. Two details matter for pet owners: **Dried milkweed does not become safe.** Cardiac glycosides persist in dried plant material. Hay contaminated with dried milkweed has poisoned livestock, and the same risk applies to dried garden debris, dead stalks, and compost [6][7]. A dog that chews a dried milkweed stalk in late fall is exposed to the same toxin as a dog that eats a fresh leaf in July. **Species differences exist but do not change the advice.** Asclepias viridis has caused fatal poisoning in sheep, with myocarditis and lung lesions on postmortem examination [14]. Asclepias eriocarpa and Asclepias labriformis have caused poisoning in sheep as well [15]. These are livestock exposures, often involving large amounts of plant material, but they confirm that the toxin is present across the genus and that the heart is the primary target organ. For a pet owner, the practical rule is simple: treat every milkweed plant, every part, fresh or dried, as toxic. ## How Much Milkweed Is Dangerous? There is no published, reliable dose threshold for milkweed in dogs or cats, and no source provides a milligram-per-kilogram figure that a pet owner could apply. What the veterinary literature does show is a consistent pattern: small exposures tend to cause gastrointestinal signs, and large exposures cause cardiac signs and can be fatal. The oleander literature is the closest parallel because oleander contains the same class of cardiac glycosides. In an experimental dog model, all dogs developed dysrhythmias within 27 minutes of an intravenous oleander infusion, three of five control dogs had lethal dysrhythmias within three hours, and one control dog died of ventricular fibrillation [9][1]. Those were intravenous exposures, which are far more severe than eating a leaf, but they show how quickly cardiac glycosides can destabilize the heart once a meaningful dose enters the bloodstream. In a clinical case, a dog that ate oleander leaves had a measurable digoxin level of 0.7 ng/mL 24 hours after ingestion and developed vomiting, arrhythmia, mild hyperkalemia, and hypoglycemia [16]. The dog recovered with supportive care. Another dog with severe oleander toxicosis was refractory to antiarrhythmic drugs and required digoxin-specific immune Fab before it stabilized [10]. The honest summary for owners is this: a small amount of milkweed may cause nothing more than vomiting, and a large amount can kill. Because the amount ingested is almost never known precisely, the decision to treat is based on the pet's signs, the amount of plant material missing, and the veterinarian's assessment. When in doubt, treat it as an emergency. ## Risk Factors: Which Pets Are Most at Risk Several factors raise the risk of a serious milkweed exposure. **Dogs that eat everything.** Dogs are the most commonly poisoned species in plant exposure surveys, accounting for the majority of calls [3]. Puppies and young dogs explore with their mouths and are overrepresented in garden plant ingestions. **Cats with indoor plants.** Cats accounted for about a quarter of plant poisoning calls in the Italian survey [3]. A potted milkweed brought indoors for monarch rearing puts cats at direct risk. **Free-roaming pets in rural or semi-rural areas.** Milkweed grows in pastures, roadsides, and meadows. Dogs that roam off-leash are more likely to find and chew plants. **Pets with access to garden debris or compost.** Dried milkweed stalks and seed pods remain toxic [6][7]. A compost pile or brush pile is a hidden exposure source. **Pets with pre-existing heart disease.** A pet with existing cardiac disease has less reserve to tolerate a toxin that disrupts cardiac electrical activity. A veterinarian should be told about any known heart condition when a milkweed exposure is reported. **Livestock and horses on the same property.** Milkweed poisoning is well documented in sheep and horses [15][14][6]. If you keep both pets and livestock, the milkweed management plan needs to cover all animals. ## Signs of Milkweed Poisoning in Dogs and Cats Signs usually appear within hours of ingestion, though the exact timing depends on the amount eaten and whether the stomach was full. The signs fall into two groups: gastrointestinal and cardiac. ### Gastrointestinal signs (usually first) - Vomiting - Diarrhea - Drooling or excessive salivation - Loss of appetite - Abdominal pain or discomfort - Lethargy or depression These signs reflect direct irritation of the stomach and intestines by plant material and by the cardenolides themselves [1]. In mild exposures, gastrointestinal signs may be the only problem, and they often resolve with supportive care. ### Cardiac signs (more serious) - Abnormally slow heart rate (bradycardia) - Irregular heart rhythm - Atrioventricular block, a conduction disturbance visible on an ECG - Ventricular dysrhythmias - Weakness, wobbliness, or collapse - Pale or bluish gums - Difficulty breathing - Seizures or sudden death in severe cases Cardiac glycosides produce these signs by disrupting the sodium-potassium pump in heart muscle, and hyperkalemia can worsen the electrical instability [1]. In the experimental oleander dog model, dysrhythmias appeared within 27 minutes of intravenous exposure, and lethal rhythms developed in some untreated dogs within three hours [9]. ### Signs that are easy to miss A pet with a mild exposure may simply seem "off." Subtle signs include: - Reluctance to eat or drink - Hiding or unusual quietness - Mild wobbliness when walking - A heartbeat that feels slower than normal when you place a hand on the chest These signs are nonspecific, which is why any known milkweed exposure should be reported to a veterinarian even if the pet looks fine. ### Species differences Dogs and cats show the same general pattern of gastrointestinal and cardiac signs. Cats may be more likely to hide signs until they are significant, which is one reason a known exposure in a cat should be taken seriously even without obvious symptoms. Pet Poison Helpline lists milkweed as toxic to both species [5], and the ASPCA lists it as toxic to dogs [4]. ## What to Do If Your Dog Ate Milkweed If your dog ate milkweed, call your veterinarian, an emergency veterinary hospital, or a pet poison hotline immediately. Do not wait for signs to develop. Early decontamination, when it is appropriate, is most effective within the first hour or two after ingestion. ### Step-by-step 1. **Remove your pet from the plant source.** Move the dog away from the milkweed patch and check the mouth for plant material. Wipe the mouth with a damp cloth if there is visible sap, and rinse the skin if sap contacted the coat. 2. **Identify the plant.** Take a photo of the plant, or bring a sample in a sealed bag. Knowing it is Asclepias helps the veterinarian plan treatment. 3. **Estimate the amount eaten.** Note how many leaves, stems, or pods are missing. Even a rough estimate helps. 4. **Call for guidance.** Your veterinarian or a poison hotline will tell you whether to come in and whether decontamination is appropriate. 5. **Do not induce vomiting at home unless instructed.** Emesis is a medical decision. It is contraindicated in some situations and can worsen outcomes if done incorrectly. 6. **Do not give food, milk, oil, or home remedies.** These do not neutralize cardiac glycosides and can complicate treatment. 7. **Go to the hospital if signs are present.** Vomiting, diarrhea, wobbliness, collapse, or abnormal breathing means the pet needs immediate evaluation. ### What to bring to the hospital - A photo or sample of the plant - An estimate of how much was eaten and when - A list of your pet's medications and any known health conditions - Your pet's vaccination and medical history if you have it handy ## What to Do If Your Cat Ate Milkweed The steps for cats are the same as for dogs, with two additions. First, cats that chew indoor milkweed may have sap on their paws and coat. Gently wipe the paws and fur with a damp cloth to reduce further exposure through grooming. Second, cats are masters at hiding illness. A cat that ate milkweed and looks normal still needs a veterinary call. Cats accounted for 26 percent of plant poisoning calls in one survey, so this is not a rare event [3]. If your cat is vomiting, drooling, wobbly, breathing fast, or has a slow or irregular heartbeat, go to an emergency hospital immediately. ## How Veterinarians Diagnose Milkweed Poisoning Diagnosis is built on history, physical examination, and targeted testing. ### History and physical examination The veterinarian will ask what plant was eaten, how much, and when. They will examine the mouth for plant material, check hydration, listen to the heart and lungs, palpate the abdomen, and assess mentation and gait. ### Electrocardiogram An ECG is the single most important test in a suspected cardiac glycoside exposure. It detects bradycardia, atrioventricular block, and ventricular dysrhythmias [1]. In the oleander dog model, ECG changes were the defining feature of cardiotoxicity [9]. ### Blood work A minimum database typically includes: - **Serum electrolytes**, especially potassium. Hyperkalemia is a classic finding in cardiac glycoside poisoning [16][1]. - **Blood glucose**. Hypoglycemia has been reported in a dog with oleander toxicosis, attributed to the plant's effects on blood sugar [16]. - **Renal and hepatic values**, to assess organ function and guide treatment. - **Complete blood count**, to evaluate overall health. ### Cardiac glycoside assays In some cases, a veterinarian may measure digoxin-like immunoreactive substances using a competitive binding immunoassay. This approach was used to confirm oleander toxicosis in a dog, with a level of 0.7 ng/mL 24 hours after ingestion [16]. The same immunoassay technique has been used to screen plant specimens for cardiac glycosides, including milkweed species [13]. These assays are not available in every practice and are typically used when the exposure is significant or the diagnosis is unclear. ### Imaging Thoracic radiographs may be taken if there is concern about aspiration pneumonia after vomiting or if the pet has respiratory signs. Abdominal imaging is rarely needed for milkweed specifically but may help if a large amount of plant material was ingested. ## Treatment: What Veterinary Care Looks Like Treatment depends on how much was eaten, how long ago, and how sick the pet is. There is no single protocol, and the plan is tailored to the individual patient. ### Decontamination If the pet is seen soon after ingestion and is stable, the veterinarian may induce vomiting to remove plant material from the stomach. Activated charcoal may be used in some cases to bind remaining toxin. These decisions are made by the veterinarian based on the timing and the pet's condition. Never attempt decontamination at home without professional guidance. ### Gastrointestinal support Vomiting and diarrhea are managed with antiemetics, intravenous fluids, and gastrointestinal protectants as needed. Most pets with mild exposures respond well to this level of care [3]. ### Cardiac monitoring and antiarrhythmic therapy Any pet with suspected cardiac glycoside toxicity needs continuous ECG monitoring. Bradycardia, atrioventricular block, and ventricular dysrhythmias are managed with appropriate antiarrhythmic drugs and supportive care [1]. In the oleander dog model, untreated control dogs developed lethal dysrhythmias, which is why monitoring is not optional in significant exposures [9]. ### Hyperkalemia management High potassium is treated with standard measures such as intravenous fluids, glucose, and other agents that shift potassium back into cells. In the oleander dog model, animals treated with fructose-1,6-diphosphate maintained normal potassium levels, while control animals developed marked hyperkalemia [1]. That experimental treatment is not standard clinical practice, but it illustrates how closely potassium control is tied to survival. ### Digoxin-specific immune Fab fragments Digoxin-specific immune Fab fragments are the most specific treatment available for severe cardiac glycoside poisoning. These antibody fragments bind cardiac glycosides and remove them from their target site. The evidence in dogs is direct. In an experimental canine model of oleander cardiac glycoside toxicity, all five dogs treated with digoxin-specific Fab converted to normal sinus rhythm within eight minutes of infusion, and all five survived the three-hour observation period. Three of five control dogs had lethal dysrhythmias [9]. In a clinical case, a dog with severe oleander toxicosis that was refractory to all antiarrhythmic therapies and supportive care was successfully treated with digoxin-specific immune Fab and recovered [10]. That dog did suffer ischemic injuries with unknown long-term effects, which shows that surviving a severe cardiac glycoside exposure does not always mean escaping without organ damage. Digoxin-specific Fab is not stocked in every practice. A veterinarian managing a severe case may need to arrange transfer to a referral hospital or obtain the product through a poison control service. This is one reason early recognition matters. ### Supportive care and monitoring Hospitalized pets typically receive intravenous fluids, antiemetics, electrolyte monitoring, and continuous or intermittent ECG monitoring. The duration of hospitalization depends on the severity of signs and how quickly the heart rhythm stabilizes. In the published oleander case with hypoglycemia, the dog was discharged after 48 hours and made a full recovery [16]. ### What not to do at home - Do not induce vomiting unless a veterinarian instructs you to. - Do not give milk, oil, butter, or activated charcoal at home. - Do not give human heart medications or any other drug. - Do not wait for signs to appear before calling for advice. ## Prognosis: What to Expect Most plant poisonings in pets are mild to moderate, and most pets recover with supportive care [3]. Small milkweed exposures that cause only vomiting or diarrhea generally have a good outcome. Large exposures that produce cardiac signs are more serious. In the experimental oleander model, three of five untreated dogs developed lethal dysrhythmias within three hours [9]. In clinical practice, dogs with severe cardiac glycoside toxicosis can survive with aggressive care, including digoxin-specific Fab when needed, but they may have lasting organ damage [10]. Factors that improve the odds: - Early recognition and early veterinary care - Small amount ingested - No underlying heart disease - Prompt control of vomiting and electrolyte abnormalities - Access to advanced care, including ECG monitoring and digoxin-specific Fab if needed Factors that worsen the odds: - Large ingestion - Delay in seeking care - Severe cardiac dysrhythmias at presentation - Significant hyperkalemia - Collapse, seizures, or respiratory distress ## Milkweed and the Monarch Butterfly: Can You Have Both? Yes. You can grow milkweed for monarchs and keep your pets safe. The two goals are compatible with planning. Monarch caterpillars feed on milkweed and sequester its cardenolides, which makes them toxic to many predators [2]. That is a natural defense for the butterfly, not a reason to avoid the plant. The risk to pets comes from direct ingestion of the plant, not from the butterflies. ### Practical strategies for a pet-safe monarch garden **Fence the milkweed patch.** A physical barrier keeps dogs out of the plants. Even a low decorative fence can deter a dog that wanders through the garden. **Plant milkweed away from main traffic areas.** Put it at the back of a border or in a dedicated bed rather than along a path your dog uses daily. **Supervise outdoor time.** A dog that is supervised is far less likely to graze on garden plants. **Keep cut stems, leaves, and seed pods out of reach.** When you prune or collect seed pods, bag the material immediately and put it in a closed bin. Do not leave clippings on the ground or in an open compost pile [6][7]. **Do not bring milkweed indoors if you have cats.** If you raise monarchs indoors, use a fully enclosed rearing cage that cats cannot access. Keep the cage in a room the cat cannot enter. **Wash your hands and tools after handling milkweed.** The sap can irritate skin, and washing reduces the chance of transferring sap to surfaces your pet licks. **Check your hay and garden debris.** If you buy hay or mulch, inspect it for dried milkweed. Dried plant material remains toxic [6][7]. **Teach children not to feed plants to pets.** A child handing a milkweed leaf to a dog is a common route of exposure. **Know your local milkweed species.** Common garden species include Asclepias tuberosa (butterfly weed), Asclepias incarnata (swamp milkweed), and Asclepias curassavica (tropical milkweed). All are Asclepias species and all should be treated as toxic [13][4]. ### What about butterfly weed? Butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) is a milkweed species. It contains cardenolides like other Asclepias plants. Treat it with the same caution as any other milkweed. ## Prevention: Keeping Pets Away from Milkweed Prevention is straightforward once you know the plant. - **Identify milkweed on your property.** Learn what it looks like in your region, including seedlings and dried stalks. - **Remove or fence milkweed in areas your pets access.** If you want to keep it for pollinators, fence it. - **Do not compost milkweed.** Dried material remains toxic [6][7]. - **Store garden waste in closed bins.** Do not leave clippings where pets can reach them. - **Supervise pets in new outdoor environments.** Visiting a friend's garden, a park, or a rural property all carry exposure risk. - **Call your veterinarian if you suspect any exposure.** Early advice is free and can prevent a serious outcome. ## Emergency Red Flags: Go to a Veterinarian Now Seek emergency veterinary care immediately if your dog or cat has any of these signs after a possible milkweed exposure: - Collapse or fainting - Seizures - Difficulty breathing or rapid breathing - Slow heart rate (you can feel a slow pulse on the inner thigh) - Irregular heartbeat - Severe or repeated vomiting - Bloody diarrhea - Pale, white, or bluish gums - Extreme weakness or inability to stand - Known ingestion of a large amount of milkweed Do not wait to see if signs improve. Cardiac glycoside poisoning can progress quickly, and early treatment saves lives. ## Limitations and When to Contact a Veterinarian This article provides general information about milkweed toxicity in dogs and cats. It cannot replace an examination by a veterinarian who knows your pet. Contact a veterinarian immediately if: - You saw your pet eat milkweed, even a small amount - You suspect your pet ate milkweed but are not certain - Your pet has vomiting, diarrhea, drooling, or lethargy after being outdoors - Your pet has a slow, fast, or irregular heartbeat - Your pet has collapsed, is breathing abnormally, or is having seizures - Your pet has a known heart condition and may have been exposed - You are unsure whether a plant in your yard is milkweed When you call, have the following ready: your pet's species, weight, age, any medications, the time of exposure, the amount eaten, and a photo of the plant. That information helps the veterinarian decide how urgently your pet needs to be seen. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### Is milkweed poisonous to dogs? Yes. Milkweed (Asclepias species) contains cardiac glycosides called cardenolides, and the ASPCA lists milkweed as toxic to dogs [4]. All parts of the plant are toxic, and dried plant material remains toxic [6][7]. Small exposures often cause only gastrointestinal signs, but large exposures can cause dangerous heart rhythms. ### Is milkweed toxic to cats? Yes. Pet Poison Helpline lists milkweed as toxic to cats as well as dogs [5]. Cats that chew indoor milkweed or walk through it and groom their paws can be exposed. Cats are good at hiding illness, so any known exposure should prompt a call to a veterinarian. ### What happens if a dog eats milkweed? A dog that eats milkweed may vomit, have diarrhea, drool, or seem lethargic. With larger amounts, the dog can develop a slow or irregular heartbeat, weakness, collapse, or seizures. Call a veterinarian immediately after any known ingestion, even if the dog seems fine. ### How much milkweed is toxic to dogs? There is no published safe dose for milkweed in dogs. The severity depends on how much was eaten, which part of the plant, and the individual dog. Treat any ingestion as potentially serious and call a veterinarian for guidance. ### Can milkweed kill a dog? Large ingestions of cardiac glycoside plants can be fatal. In an experimental dog model of oleander toxicity, three of five untreated dogs developed lethal dysrhythmias within three hours [9]. Most pet plant exposures are mild to moderate [3], but severe cardiac glycoside poisoning is a life-threatening emergency. ### What is the treatment for milkweed poisoning in dogs? Treatment includes decontamination when appropriate, intravenous fluids, antiemetics, electrolyte management, and continuous ECG monitoring. Severe cases may require digoxin-specific immune Fab fragments, which have been used successfully in dogs with severe cardiac glycoside toxicosis [9][10]. Treatment is tailored to the individual patient. ### Is it safe to have a butterfly garden with dogs? Yes, with planning. Fence the milkweed patch, supervise outdoor time, keep cut stems and seed pods out of reach, and do not bring milkweed indoors if you have cats. Monarch caterpillars themselves are not a danger to pets. The risk comes from pets eating the plant. ### What should I do if my cat ate milkweed? Call your veterinarian or a pet poison hotline immediately. Do not wait for signs. If your cat is vomiting, drooling, wobbly, or breathing abnormally, go to an emergency veterinary hospital. Bring a photo of the plant and an estimate of how much was eaten. ## Related Articles - [My Dog Ate a Frog: Is It Poisonous?](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/vet-visit-decisions/dog-ate-frog-poisonous) - [Dog Ate Ibuprofen or Tylenol: Toxicity Signs and Emergency Treatment](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/emergency-and-first-aid/dog-ate-ibuprofen-tylenol-toxicity-treatment) - [Cat Ate Toxic Lily](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/toxicology-and-food-safety/cat-ate-toxic-lily) - [Dog Ate Toxic Plant](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/toxicology-and-food-safety/dog-ate-toxic-plant) - [My Cat Ate a Toxic Plant: How to Identify and What to Do](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/vet-visit-decisions/cat-ate-toxic-plant-identify) - [My Dog Ate a Mushroom: How to Tell If It's Toxic](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/vet-visit-decisions/dog-ate-mushroom-toxic) - [Salt Toxicity in Dogs and Cats: Sources, Signs, and Treatment](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/toxicology-and-food-safety/salt-toxicity-in-dogs-and-cats) - [Are Acorns Poisonous to Dogs? Oak Toxicity and Blockage Risk](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/toxicology-and-food-safety/acorns-and-dogs-oak-toxicity) - [Poison Ivy and Dogs: Can Dogs Get It or Spread It to You?](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/toxicology-and-food-safety/poison-ivy-and-dogs-can-dogs-get-it) ## Sources 1. [Fructose-1,6-diphosphate in the treatment of oleander toxicity in dogs.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9949476/) 2. [Entomopathogenic Nematode Species Vary in Their Behavior and Virulence in Response to Cardiac Glycosides Within and Around Insect Hosts.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39869279/) 3. [Plant poisoning in domestic animals: epidemiological data from an Italian survey (2000-2011).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23716536/) 4. [Toxic and Non-toxic Plants: Milkweed (aspca.org)](https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/aspca-poison-control/toxic-and-non-toxic-plants/milkweed) 5. [Milkweed Is Toxic To Dogs - Pet Poison Helpline® (petpoisonhelpline.com)](https://www.petpoisonhelpline.com/poison/milkweed/) 6. [Milkweed Poisoning of Horses - New Mexico State University (pubs.nmsu.edu)](https://pubs.nmsu.edu/_b/B709/index.html) 7. [Milkweed (Asclepias spp.) - Poisonous Plant Research (ars.usda.gov)](https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/logan-ut/poisonous-plant-research/docs/milkweed-asclepias-spp/) 8. [Treatment of experimentally induced oleander poisoning.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5167071/) 9. [Digoxin-specific Fab fragments in the treatment of oleander toxicity in a canine model.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1928877/) 10. [Successful use of digoxin-specific immune Fab in the treatment of severe Nerium oleander toxicosis in a dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28755414/) 11. [Milkweed and Milkweed Toxicity - Wisconsin Horticulture (hort.extension.wisc.edu)](https://hort.extension.wisc.edu/articles/milkweed-ornamental-plants-toxic-to-animals/) 12. [Apparent toxicosis associated with lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis) ingestion in a dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2777690/) 13. [Naturally occurring cardiac glycosides.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3086679/) 14. [Intoxication of sheep exposed to ozark milkweed (Asclepias viridis Walter).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11111941/) 15. [Effects on sheep of the milkweeds Asclepias eriocarpa and A. labriformis and of cardiac glycoside-containing derivative material.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/442103/) 16. [Hypoglycemia associated with oleander toxicity in a dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25252802/)