# Why Is My Dog rapidly gaining weight? Hypothyroidism Cushings and Spay Weight


## Key Takeaways

-   Rapid weight gain in dogs is often indicative of underlying medical conditions rather than simple overeating, with hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, and post-spay metabolic changes being the most common culprits.
-   Hypothyroidism results from insufficient thyroid hormone production, slowing metabolism and leading to weight gain, lethargy, and characteristic skin/coat changes; diagnosis involves T4 and TSH blood tests, with treatment being lifelong levothyroxine supplementation.
-   Cushing's disease (hyperadrenocorticism) is caused by excessive cortisol production, manifesting as a pot-bellied appearance, increased thirst and urination, increased appetite, and skin issues; diagnosis requires specific tests like the ACTH stimulation test or low-dose dexamethasone suppression test.
-   Post-spay weight gain is attributed to a significant drop in estrogen, leading to decreased metabolic rate, increased appetite, and reduced activity; management involves immediate caloric adjustment (approx. 25-30% reduction), high-protein/high-fiber diets, and consistent exercise.
-   Veterinary diagnosis involves a comprehensive history, physical examination, baseline bloodwork (CBC, biochemistry), urinalysis, and specific endocrine tests to differentiate between these conditions and guide appropriate, evidence-based treatment strategies.
-   Effective weight management for dogs, regardless of the cause, requires a multi-modal approach combining dietary modification (caloric restriction, high-protein/high-fiber diets), increased physical activity, and medical management of any underlying endocrine disorders.

---

If your [dog](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-methods/dog) is gaining weight rapidly, you are likely concerned and looking for answers. Rapid weight gain in dogs is rarely a simple case of overeating. While increased food intake and reduced exercise are common contributors, a sudden and significant increase in body weight often points to an underlying medical condition. The three most common culprits veterinarians investigate are hypothyroidism (an underactive thyroid gland), Cushing's disease (hyperadrenocorticism), and the metabolic changes that follow spay surgery.

This comprehensive guide will help you understand the differences between these conditions, what to expect during a veterinary visit, and how to manage your dog's weight safely and effectively. We will explain the science behind each cause, outline the diagnostic process, and provide evidence-based strategies for helping your dog achieve a healthy weight. Remember, this article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. If your dog is gaining weight rapidly, schedule an appointment with your veterinarian.

## At a Glance: Comparing the Top Three Causes of Rapid Weight Gain

To help you quickly understand the key differences, the table below compares the most common medical reasons for rapid weight gain in dogs. This is a starting point for discussion with your vet, not a diagnostic tool.

| Feature | Hypothyroidism | Cushing's Disease (Hyperadrenocorticism) | Post-Spay Weight Gain |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **Underlying Cause** | Underproduction of thyroid hormones, slowing metabolism [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] | Overproduction of cortisol by the adrenal glands [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] | Loss of estrogen, leading to decreased metabolic rate and increased appetite [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>] |
| **Typical Age of Onset** | Middle-aged to older dogs (4-10 years) | Middle-aged to older dogs (6+ years) | Immediately following spay surgery, at any age |
| **Classic Signs** | Weight gain, lethargy, hair loss, dry coat, cold intolerance | Pot-bellied appearance, increased thirst (polydipsia) and urination (polyuria), panting, thin skin, hair loss | Weight gain, increased appetite, reduced activity levels |
| **Key Blood Test** | Low total T4, high TSH (can be confirmed with free T4) | Abnormal results on ACTH stimulation test or [low-dose dexamethasone suppression test](/knowledge/diagnostics/endocrinology/endocrine-testing-low-dose-dexamethasone-suppression-for-cushings-disease) | No specific test; diagnosis is based on history and physical exam |
| **Weight Gain Pattern** | Gradual, but can appear rapid; overall obesity | Weight gain concentrated in the abdomen (pot-belly) | Gradual to rapid, depending on diet and activity; affects overall body condition [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] |
| **Lethargy** | Common and often severe | Common, but dogs may also be restless or panting | Common, especially in the first few months after surgery |
| **Skin & Coat Changes** | Symmetrical hair loss, dry and brittle hair, darkening of skin (hyperpigmentation) | Thin skin, easy bruising, hair loss on the trunk, darkening of skin (calcinosis cutis is possible) | Minimal changes, though coat quality may decline with weight gain |
| **Appetite** | Normal or decreased | Increased (polyphagia) | Increased [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] |

## Understanding the Physiology of Weight Gain

To understand why a dog gains weight rapidly, it helps to know the basic hormonal controls of metabolism.

The thyroid gland, located in the neck, produces hormones (primarily T4 and T3) that regulate the body's metabolic rate. These hormones control how quickly cells use energy. When thyroid hormone production is insufficient, a condition called hypothyroidism, the body's metabolism slows down dramatically. This means your dog burns fewer calories at rest, and the excess energy from food is stored as fat, leading to weight gain even without an increase in food intake [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

The adrenal glands, located near the kidneys, produce cortisol, a steroid hormone that helps the body respond to stress, regulate blood sugar, and manage inflammation. Cushing's disease occurs when the adrenal glands produce too much cortisol. This excess cortisol causes a cascade of effects, including increased appetite, redistribution of body fat to the abdomen, and muscle weakness, all of which contribute to weight gain and a characteristic pot-bellied appearance [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

In female dogs, the ovaries are the primary source of estrogen. Estrogen has a significant effect on metabolism and appetite regulation. After a spay (ovariohysterectomy), the ovaries are removed, leading to a dramatic drop in estrogen levels. This hormonal shift is directly linked to a decrease in metabolic rate, an increase in appetite, and a reduction in voluntary physical activity, making weight gain highly likely if caloric intake is not adjusted [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>].

## Why Is My Dog Gaining Weight After Being Spayed?

Spaying (ovariohysterectomy) is a routine and responsible surgical procedure that prevents unwanted litters and offers significant health benefits, such as reducing the risk of mammary cancer and uterine infections. However, it is also a well-documented risk factor for obesity [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

### The Science of Post-Spay Weight Gain

Research has confirmed that the hormonal changes after spay surgery directly contribute to weight gain through multiple mechanisms [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>]:

- **Decreased Metabolic Rate:** The loss of estrogen reduces the dog's resting energy expenditure. This means she needs fewer calories to maintain her body weight than she did before surgery.
- **Increased Appetite:** Estrogen is an appetite suppressant. When estrogen levels drop, many dogs experience a significant increase in hunger, leading them to eat more if given the chance.
- **Reduced Physical Activity:** Spayed dogs often show a decrease in voluntary physical activity. They may be less inclined to run, play, or explore, further reducing their daily caloric needs.

In a controlled study, adult female beagles were spayed and then fed to maintain their body weight for 12 weeks, followed by a period where they were allowed to overeat for another 12 weeks [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>]. The results showed that the spayed dogs had a significantly higher risk of weight gain compared to the non-spayed control group, especially when food was available in excess. This research highlights that both metabolic changes and increased food intake are key drivers of post-spay weight gain [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

### Managing Post-Spay Weight Gain

The good news is that post-spay weight gain is highly manageable with a proactive approach.

1.  **Adjust Food Intake Immediately:** Do not wait for weight gain to occur. After your dog's spay surgery, discuss her new caloric needs with your veterinarian. A general rule is to reduce her food intake by about 25-30% from her pre-spay amount, but this should be individualized based on her body condition score (BCS) and activity level.
2.  **Choose the Right Diet:** Your vet may recommend a high-protein, high-fiber diet. Research in both dogs and cats has shown that these diets are effective in managing weight after spay surgery [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>]. High protein helps maintain lean muscle mass, which supports a healthier metabolism. High fiber increases satiety, helping your dog feel full and satisfied with fewer calories [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-3">3</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>].
3.  **Monitor Body Condition:** Learn how to assess your dog's Body Condition Score (BCS). You should be able to feel her ribs easily with a thin layer of fat, and she should have a visible waist when viewed from above. Weigh her regularly (every 2-4 weeks) at home using a consistent scale to track progress.
4.  **Encourage Activity:** While you should follow your vet's advice on rest immediately after surgery, you can gradually increase her physical activity as she heals. Regular, moderate exercise is crucial for burning calories and maintaining muscle mass. Studies on weight loss programs show that a combination of dietary restriction and increased activity is most effective [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>][<a href="#ref-4">4</a>].

## Hypothyroidism: A Slow but Significant Cause of Weight Gain

Hypothyroidism is one of the most common endocrine disorders in dogs and a frequent cause of unexplained weight gain. It occurs when the thyroid gland fails to produce enough thyroid hormone, leading to a slowdown of the body's metabolism [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

### Signs and Symptoms of Hypothyroidism

Besides weight gain, which can be rapid in some cases, hypothyroidism presents with a range of other clinical signs. Owners often describe their dog as "slowing down."

- **Lethargy and Mental Dullness:** The dog may seem tired, sleep more, and be less interested in play or walks.
- **Skin and Coat Changes:** This is a hallmark of the disease. Look for symmetrical hair loss (alopecia) on the trunk, a dry and brittle coat, excessive shedding, and hyperpigmentation (the skin becoming darker). The skin may also be prone to infections.
- **Cold Intolerance:** The dog may seek out warm places and be reluctant to go outside in cold weather.
- **Other Signs:** Some dogs may experience weight gain without a noticeable increase in appetite, and others may have neurological signs like facial nerve paralysis or a head tilt. Heart rate may also be slower than normal.

### Diagnosis and Management

Diagnosis of hypothyroidism is based on clinical signs and blood tests. Your veterinarian will likely recommend a panel that includes a total T4 (thyroxine) level and a TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) level. A low T4 with a high TSH is highly suggestive of hypothyroidism. In some cases, a free T4 level measured by equilibrium dialysis is needed for confirmation.

Treatment involves daily oral supplementation with synthetic thyroid hormone (levothyroxine). This is not a cure, but a lifelong management plan. With proper dosing, which is monitored through regular blood tests, most dogs show significant improvement in energy levels and coat quality within a few months. Weight loss will occur, but it requires a combined approach of medication and dietary management. Once thyroid levels are normal, the same principles of caloric restriction and increased exercise apply to help your dog shed the extra pounds.

## Cushing's Disease: The Hormonal Overdrive

Cushing's disease, or hyperadrenocorticism, is another common endocrine disorder that leads to weight gain, particularly in middle-aged and older dogs. It is caused by the overproduction of cortisol, a stress hormone, by the adrenal glands [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

### Signs and Symptoms of Cushing's Disease

The signs of Cushing's disease are often distinctive and develop gradually.

- **Pot-Bellied Appearance:** This is a classic sign. The excess cortisol causes fat to be redistributed to the abdomen and also weakens the abdominal muscles, leading to a pendulous belly.
- **Increased Thirst and Urination (Polydipsia/Polyuria):** This is often one of the first signs owners notice. The dog may drink excessively and need more frequent bathroom breaks, including during the night.
- **Increased Appetite (Polyphagia):** Dogs with Cushing's are often constantly hungry and may beg for food aggressively.
- **Panting:** Increased panting is common, even in cool conditions.
- **Skin and Coat Changes:** Similar to hypothyroidism, Cushing's can cause hair loss, thin skin, and the formation of hard, white deposits in the skin (calcinosis cutis). The skin is also more prone to bruising and infections.

### Diagnosis and Management

Diagnosing Cushing's disease can be more complex than diagnosing hypothyroidism. Your veterinarian will likely start with a broad health screen, including a complete blood count, biochemistry profile, and urinalysis. If these tests suggest Cushing's, more specific tests are needed:

- **ACTH Stimulation Test:** This test measures the adrenal glands' response to a synthetic hormone (ACTH). It is good for diagnosing one type of Cushing's (pituitary-dependent) and is also used to monitor treatment.
- **Low-Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test (LDDST):** This test is often considered the best screening test for Cushing's. It involves giving a small dose of dexamethasone (a synthetic steroid) and measuring cortisol levels over several hours.

Treatment for Cushing's disease depends on the type. Most cases (about 80-85%) are caused by a benign tumor on the pituitary gland in the brain. These are typically treated with oral medications that suppress cortisol production. A smaller percentage of cases are caused by a tumor on the adrenal gland itself, which may require surgery.

Managing weight in a dog with Cushing's is challenging because the disease itself promotes fat storage and muscle loss. Treatment of the underlying condition is the first step. Once cortisol levels are controlled, weight management becomes more feasible, but it still requires a dedicated approach to diet and exercise.

## Other Potential Causes of Rapid Weight Gain

While hypothyroidism, Cushing's, and post-spay changes are the most common, other conditions can also lead to rapid weight gain. Your veterinarian will consider these as part of a thorough diagnostic workup.

- **Insulinoma:** A tumor of the pancreas that produces excess insulin, leading to low blood sugar. This can cause increased appetite and weight gain.
- **Certain Medications:** Drugs like corticosteroids (e.g., prednisone) can cause significant weight gain and increased appetite.
- **Congestive Heart Failure:** While more commonly associated with weight loss, fluid retention (edema) can cause a rapid increase in body weight.
- **Simple Overfeeding and Lack of Exercise:** This is the most common cause of obesity overall. The "rapid" nature of the gain can be due to a sudden change in diet, an increase in treats, or a decrease in activity level [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

## The Veterinary Diagnostic Approach

If your dog is gaining weight rapidly, a visit to the veterinarian is essential. The diagnostic process will be systematic to rule out or confirm the underlying causes.

1.  **Comprehensive History and Physical Exam:** Your vet will ask about your dog's diet, exercise routine, and any other clinical signs you have noticed, such as increased thirst or changes in appetite. A thorough physical exam will include assessing your dog's Body Condition Score (BCS), muscle mass, and checking for any abnormalities like a pot-bellied abdomen or skin issues.
2.  **Baseline Bloodwork:** A complete blood count (CBC) and serum biochemistry profile are essential first steps. These tests evaluate organ function, blood sugar levels, and can reveal clues that point toward specific endocrine disorders.
3.  **Urinalysis:** A urinalysis is often performed alongside bloodwork to check for urinary tract infections, which are common with Cushing's disease, and to assess the kidney's ability to concentrate urine.
4.  **Specific Endocrine Tests:** Based on the findings from the initial tests, your vet will recommend specific tests for hypothyroidism (T4, TSH) or Cushing's disease (ACTH stimulation test, LDDST).

## Evidence-Based Weight Management: A Multi-Modal Approach

Regardless of the underlying cause, weight loss in dogs requires a multi-modal approach that combines dietary changes, increased physical activity, and, when necessary, medical management of the underlying disease [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>][<a href="#ref-4">4</a>].

### The Role of Diet

Dietary modification is the cornerstone of any weight loss program. The goal is to create a caloric deficit while ensuring your dog receives adequate nutrition.

- **High-Protein, High-Fiber Diets:** These diets are particularly effective for weight management. Protein helps preserve lean muscle mass, which is vital for maintaining a healthy metabolic rate. Fiber promotes a feeling of fullness, which can help reduce begging and food-seeking behavior [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-3">3</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>][<a href="#ref-5">5</a>]. Studies have shown that these diets can lead to significant improvements in body composition and metabolic health [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>].
- **Caloric Restriction:** Your veterinarian will calculate the appropriate daily caloric intake for your dog's target weight. This is often done using a formula based on the dog's ideal body weight, not its current weight. It is crucial to measure food portions accurately using a kitchen scale or a standard measuring cup.
- **Treats and Table Scraps:** These can be a major source of excess calories. They should be eliminated or strictly limited. Consider using a portion of your dog's regular kibble as treats, or use low-calorie options like green beans or carrots.

### The Role of Exercise

Increasing physical activity is just as important as diet for weight loss.

- **Start Slowly:** If your dog is not used to exercise, start with short, gentle walks and gradually increase the duration and intensity.
- **Consistency is Key:** Aim for daily exercise. Regular activity helps burn calories, build muscle, and improve overall well-being.
- **Low-Impact Options:** For overweight dogs, especially those with joint issues, low-impact exercises like swimming or leash walks on soft surfaces are excellent choices. This is particularly important as obesity is a risk factor for conditions like cranial cruciate ligament rupture [<a href="#ref-6">6</a>].

### The Role of Medical Management

If your dog is diagnosed with hypothyroidism or Cushing's disease, medical management is non-negotiable.

- **Hypothyroidism:** Daily thyroid hormone replacement therapy will restore a normal metabolic rate. Without this medication, weight loss is nearly impossible, no matter how strict the diet.
- **Cushing's Disease:** Medication to control cortisol production is essential. Once the disease is managed, the metabolic and appetite-related symptoms will improve, making weight loss efforts more successful.

## Unsafe Home Remedies and What to Avoid

It can be tempting to try quick fixes for your dog's weight gain, but many are dangerous.

- **Do Not Use Human Weight Loss Drugs:** Medications like Ozempic or phentermine are not approved for dogs and can be toxic.
- **Do Not Severely Restrict Food:** Cutting your dog's food intake too drastically can lead to nutritional deficiencies and can actually slow down their metabolism, making weight loss harder.
- **Avoid Fad Diets:** Diets that are extremely low in carbohydrates or very high in fat can be unsafe for dogs and may not provide balanced nutrition.
- **Never Give Over-the-Counter Supplements Without Veterinary Approval:** Some supplements can interfere with medications or cause adverse effects.

## Prevention: The Best Medicine

Preventing rapid weight gain is always easier than treating it.

- **Monitor Your Dog's BCS:** Learn how to assess your dog's body condition and do it monthly.
- **Weigh Your Dog Regularly:** Use a home scale for small dogs or a veterinary clinic scale for larger breeds. Track the numbers.
- **Measure Food Portions:** Do not feed your dog "by eye." Use a measuring cup or scale.
- **Limit Treats:** Treats should make up no more than 10% of your dog's daily caloric intake.
- **Post-Spay Plan:** If you are having your dog spayed, discuss a post-operative nutrition and exercise plan with your veterinarian *before* the surgery. This proactive approach is the most effective way to prevent the typical post-spay weight gain [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

## Limitations and When to Contact a Veterinarian

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the common causes of rapid weight gain in dogs. However, it is not a substitute for professional veterinary advice. The information presented here is based on general scientific principles and research findings, but it cannot predict what is happening with your individual dog.

Breed, age, genetics, and underlying health conditions all play a role in how a dog responds to hormonal changes, diet, and exercise. For example, the risk of certain joint disorders associated with early spay/neuter is breed-specific and varies with body size [<a href="#ref-7">7</a>]. What works for one dog may not be appropriate for another.

You should contact your veterinarian immediately if your dog is gaining weight rapidly, especially if the weight gain is accompanied by any of the following red flags:

- **Sudden or severe lethargy or collapse**
- **Difficulty breathing or excessive panting**
- **A very distended or painful abdomen**
- **Excessive thirst and urination that is disrupting their sleep**
- **Vomiting or diarrhea**
- **Loss of appetite (anorexia) despite weight gain**
- **Hair loss, skin lesions, or a dull, dry coat**
- **Any signs of pain or lameness**

Early diagnosis and intervention are key to successfully managing these conditions and ensuring your dog lives a long, healthy, and happy life.

## Frequently Asked Questions

### 1. What is the most common cause of rapid weight gain in a spayed female dog?
The most common cause is the combination of a decreased metabolic rate and increased appetite that results from the loss of estrogen after surgery [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>]. If caloric intake is not adjusted, this hormonal shift almost inevitably leads to weight gain.

### 2. How can I tell if my dog's weight gain is due to hypothyroidism or just overeating?
While overeating can cause weight gain, hypothyroidism is characterized by a slowed metabolism and is accompanied by other signs like lethargy, hair loss, and a dry coat. A dog with hypothyroidism may gain weight even on a reduced-calorie diet. Blood tests (T4 and TSH) are necessary to confirm the diagnosis.

### 3. My dog has a pot belly and is always hungry. Could this be Cushing's disease?
Yes, a pot-bellied appearance and a constant, ravenous appetite (polyphagia) are two of the most classic signs of Cushing's disease. Increased thirst and urination are also very common. If you see these signs, you should have your dog evaluated by a veterinarian.

### 4. How much weight will my dog gain after being spayed?
There is no set amount. Weight gain after spaying is highly variable and depends on factors like breed, age, diet, and activity level. However, research shows that spayed dogs are at a significantly higher risk of becoming obese if their food intake is not managed [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>]. A proactive plan can prevent this.

### 5. What is the best diet to help my dog lose weight after spay surgery?
Veterinary studies support the use of high-protein, high-fiber diets for weight management after spay surgery [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>]. These diets help maintain muscle mass, increase satiety, and are effective for weight loss [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>]. Your veterinarian can recommend a specific therapeutic weight loss diet.

### 6. Can hypothyroidism be cured in dogs?
Hypothyroidism is not curable, but it is very manageable. It is treated with daily, lifelong oral medication (levothyroxine). With regular monitoring and proper dosing, most dogs with hypothyroidism live normal, healthy lives with a significant improvement in their clinical signs.

### 7. Are there any safe over-the-counter supplements for my dog's weight gain?
You should never give your dog any weight loss supplements without first consulting your veterinarian. Many supplements are ineffective, and some can be harmful or interfere with other medications. The safest and most effective approach is a combination of a veterinarian-prescribed diet and an exercise program.

### 8. How long does it take for a dog to lose weight after starting treatment for Cushing's disease?
Once a dog with Cushing's disease is on effective medication, you may start to see improvements in thirst, urination, and appetite within a few weeks. Weight loss is a slower process and depends on the degree of obesity and the implementation of a proper diet and exercise plan. It can take several months to see significant weight loss.

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<a id="ref-11"></a>[<a href="#ref-11">11</a>] [Why Spay Heifers?](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7ac6553ca11ad8532b31667c060c6a4707fb6305)

<a id="ref-12"></a>[<a href="#ref-12">12</a>] [PSIII-40 Dietary effects on food intake, body weight, body composition and metabolism of adult female cats after spay surgery](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/29fc66d792d9651131dd9233d4f708dcc58e1083)

<a id="ref-13"></a>[<a href="#ref-13">13</a>] [Body Weight Development in Adult Dogs Fed a High Level Resistant Starch Diet](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/65f7fe1d5d1c63a38013a43c0d2481045d9986c6)

<a id="ref-14"></a>[<a href="#ref-14">14</a>] [Risk factors for the development of stifle injuries in canine agility athletes.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38420212/)

<a id="ref-15"></a>[<a href="#ref-15">15</a>] [Internet Survey Evaluation of Demographic Risk Factors for Injury in Canine Agility Athletes.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35464366/)

<a id="ref-16"></a>[<a href="#ref-16">16</a>] [Postoperative arterial blood gases in spay/castration dogs: a comparison of butorphanol versus hydromorphone.](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a6448cbed04402b4820cbd33e0001ac6f6e08ec4)

<a id="ref-17"></a>[<a href="#ref-17">17</a>] [Can intake data inform on impacts of repeated subsidized onsite spay-neuter clinics for dogs?](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/1791224f454f53a46e59bd6fc9d8d77bb47bfa65)

<a id="ref-18"></a>[<a href="#ref-18">18</a>] [Serum metabolomics analysis reveals that weight loss in obese dogs results in a similar metabolic profile to dogs in ideal body condition](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/8be76eaf994e6336ab111986b7f4c0546385a4a7)

<a id="ref-19"></a>[<a href="#ref-19">19</a>] [Evaluation of aquapuncture in the reduction of intraoperative hemorrhage in canine ovariohysterectomy.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42248196/)

<a id="ref-20"></a>[<a href="#ref-20">20</a>] [The effects of general anaesthesia on body temperature of dogs subjected to ovariohysterectomy or orchiectomy performed by veterinary students in a teaching hospital.](https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/788b9721037fa2796f7efac1bd226aaee3c8da4d)

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