# Dog Worm Medicine: Types and Dosing Guide Dog worm medicine is any deworming drug given to treat or prevent intestinal worms and heartworm in dogs. The main classes are the tetrahydropyrimidines (pyrantel), the benzimidazoles (fenbendazole and febantel), the isoquinolones (praziquantel), the macrocyclic lactones (milbemycin oxime and moxidectin), and the cyclooctadepsipeptides (emodepside). Each class covers a different set of parasites, and most products combine two or more classes to widen the spectrum. Dosing is always by body weight, and the safe range depends on the specific drug, the dog's age, and in some breeds a [genetic mutation](/knowledge/molecular-biology/genetic-mutation) called MDR1. This guide explains what each class treats, how it is given, what the label dose range looks like, and how to build a fecal testing schedule that catches infections before they spread. It is written for US dog owners who want to understand what their veterinarian is prescribing or what an over-the-counter product actually does. This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. ## At a Glance | Active ingredient | Class | Main targets | Typical formulation | Label dose range | Prescription status | |--|--|--|--|--|--| | Pyrantel pamoate or embonate | Tetrahydropyrimidine | Ascarids (roundworms), hookworms | Oral tablet, chew, suspension, spot-on combination | 5 to 10 mg/kg [1] | Often OTC alone, prescription in combinations | | Fenbendazole | Benzimidazole | Ascarids, hookworms, whipworms, some tapeworms | Oral granules, suspension, chew | Label-specific, weight-banded | OTC and prescription forms | | Febantel | Benzimidazole pro-drug | Ascarids, hookworms, whipworms | Oral tablet in combination | Combination label dose | Prescription combination | | Praziquantel | Isoquinolone | Tapeworms including Echinococcus, Dipylidium, Taenia | Oral tablet, injectable, combination chew | 5 mg/kg [2][3] | Prescription in most combinations | | Milbemycin oxime | Macrocyclic lactone | Heartworm prevention, ascarids, hookworms, whipworms | Oral tablet, chew | 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg [1] | Prescription | | Moxidectin | Macrocyclic lactone | Heartworm prevention, ascarids, hookworms, whipworms | Oral chew, spot-on, injectable | 0.02 to 0.05 mg/kg [1][2] | Prescription | | Emodepside | Cyclooctadepsipeptide | Ascarids, hookworms, whipworms | Oral tablet in combination | Combination label dose | Prescription | | Lotilaner plus moxidectin plus praziquantel plus pyrantel | Multi-class combination | Fleas, ticks, heartworm, intestinal worms, Echinococcus | Oral chew | 20 mg/kg lotilaner, 0.02 mg/kg moxidectin, 5 mg/kg praziquantel, 5 mg/kg pyrantel [2] | Prescription | Dose ranges in this table come from published field and laboratory studies that used the labeled minimum dose. Your veterinarian will confirm the exact product and dose for your dog. ## Why Worm Medicine Is Not One Drug Owners often ask for "worm meds for dogs" as if a single product covers everything. No single dewormer treats every worm. The parasites that matter most in dogs fall into three groups, and each group responds to different drugs. Roundworms ([Toxocara canis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/toxocara-canis-roundworm-dogs-puppies-visceral-larva-migrans-human) and Toxascaris leonina), hookworms (Ancylostoma caninum and Uncinaria stenocephala), and whipworms (Trichuris vulpis) are nematodes. They live in the small intestine or cecum and are treated with pyrantel, the benzimidazoles, the macrocyclic lactones, or emodepside. Tapeworms (Dipylidium caninum, Taenia species, and Echinococcus species) are cestodes. They are treated mainly with praziquantel. [Echinococcus multilocularis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/echinococcus-multilocularis-dogs-foxes-alveolar-echinococcosis-zoonosis) and Echinococcus granulosus are the two tapeworms with the greatest public health importance because they cause alveolar and cystic echinococcosis in people [2]. Heartworm (Dirofilaria immitis) is a nematode that lives in the pulmonary arteries and heart. It is prevented, not treated, with macrocyclic lactones such as milbemycin oxime and moxidectin. Because these groups overlap in the same dog, combination products are common. A single chew might contain a flea and tick drug, a heartworm preventive, a tapeworm drug, and a roundworm and hookworm drug. That is why reading the ingredient list matters more than reading the brand name. ## How the Main Drug Classes Work ### Pyrantel and Fenbendazole for Ascarids and Hookworms Pyrantel is a tetrahydropyrimidine. It acts as a nicotinic agonist and causes spastic paralysis of nematode muscles, so the worms lose their grip on the intestinal wall and are expelled. It covers ascarids and hookworms well. It does not cover tapeworms or whipworms reliably. Fenbendazole and febantel are benzimidazoles. They bind tubulin and disrupt the worm's energy metabolism and [cell division](/blog/guides/cell-division). They cover ascarids, hookworms, and whipworms, and fenbendazole has some activity against certain tapeworms. Febantel is a pro-drug that converts to fenbendazole in the body. A field study of hunting dogs in southern Italy evaluated a combination of febantel, pyrantel embonate, and praziquantel and measured fecal egg count reduction at day 7 and day 14 after treatment [4]. The study confirms the practical role of this three-drug combination in dogs with high exposure to intestinal helminths. Pyrantel resistance is now a real problem in some regions. A study in Southeast Queensland found no reduction in fecal egg counts in any of 10 dogs after pyrantel treatment, with efficacy values ranging from negative 0.9 percent to negative 283.3 percent [5]. A separate Canadian study detected benzimidazole resistance markers in Ancylostoma caninum from 11 dogs, and 4 of those dogs had no travel history outside Canada [6]. A critical review of anthelmintic resistance in canine parasitology describes multidrug resistance in A. caninum, macrocyclic lactone resistance in heartworm, and isolated cases in Dipylidium caninum [7]. The practical takeaway is that persistent hookworm infections after deworming should be rechecked with a fecal test rather than treated with repeated blind doses. ### Praziquantel for Tapeworms Including Echinococcus Praziquantel is the drug of choice for tapeworms. It damages the tegument, the outer skin of the tapeworm, causing contraction and expulsion. It is active against Dipylidium caninum, Taenia species, and both Echinococcus species. The dose used in the published Echinococcus studies is 5 mg/kg [2][3]. A [cohort study](/blog/guides/cohort-studies-a-practical-guide-to-design-conduct-and-interpretation) in Kerman, Iran, treated 150 owned dogs with a single oral dose of praziquantel at 5 mg/kg and then re-sampled at 2, 5, and 12 months to measure reinfection [3]. Reinfection was common, which is why repeated dosing is needed in endemic areas. Praziquantel is also used in mass deworming campaigns. A field study in China delivered praziquantel-laced baits to wild canines using unmanned aerial vehicles and compared that method with manual bait delivery. The UAV approach saved up to 67 percent of overall cost and reduced the average positive rate on canine fecal coproantigen testing by more than 38 percent compared with the manually served area [8]. A related study developed an internet-connected smart collar that dispenses praziquantel baits automatically and tested it on 523 dogs in Hezuo City, China [9]. These campaigns exist because Echinococcus is a serious zoonosis, not because routine pet dogs need monthly praziquantel. Praziquantel resistance is uncommon but has been reported. A case report described an 18-month-old dog with persistent Dipylidium caninum infection that did not clear after praziquantel and epsiprantel but resolved with a single dose of nitroscanate [10]. That is a single case, not a general rule, but it shows why a repeat fecal test after treatment matters. ### Milbemycin and Moxidectin for Heartworm Prevention Milbemycin oxime and moxidectin are macrocyclic lactones. They open glutamate-gated chloride channels in nematode and arthropod nerve cells, causing paralysis and death. At the low doses used for heartworm prevention, they kill the larval stages of Dirofilaria immitis before the worms reach the heart. At higher doses, they also treat intestinal nematodes. In a European field study, a combination of fluralaner, moxidectin, and pyrantel was compared with afoxolaner and milbemycin oxime in client-owned dogs with intestinal nematode infections. The investigative product was dosed at fluralaner 10 to 20 mg/kg, moxidectin 0.025 to 0.050 mg/kg, and pyrantel 5 to 10 mg/kg. The control product was dosed at afoxolaner 2.5 to 5.2 mg/kg and milbemycin oxime 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg [1]. Efficacy was judged by fecal egg count reduction at day 14. A separate set of four laboratory studies tested a chewable tablet containing lotilaner, moxidectin, praziquantel, and pyrantel against Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis at minimum doses of 20 mg/kg lotilaner, 0.02 mg/kg moxidectin, 5 mg/kg praziquantel, and 5 mg/kg pyrantel [2]. The studies also tested praziquantel alone and lotilaner alone to confirm that the other ingredients did not interfere with praziquantel activity. Macrocyclic lactones are the backbone of heartworm prevention in the United States. They are prescription-only for that purpose. They do not kill adult heartworms, so a dog that is already infected needs a different treatment plan. ### Emodepside Emodepside is a cyclooctadepsipeptide. It activates a different channel than the macrocyclic lactones and causes paralysis of nematodes. It is active against ascarids, hookworms, and whipworms. It is usually sold in combination with praziquantel, which adds tapeworm coverage. In the non-terminal laboratory studies of a fluralaner, moxidectin, and pyrantel chew, emodepside plus praziquantel was used as the diagnostic dewormer to recover and count expelled worms about two weeks after the test treatment [11]. That design shows emodepside's role as a reliable nematode clearance drug in controlled settings. Emodepside is prescription-only in the United States. It is not a first-line heartworm preventive on its own. ## Dosing by Weight: What the Label Actually Says Every dewormer is dosed by body weight. Guessing a dose from the dog's size or age is unsafe and ineffective. The ranges below come from published studies that used the labeled minimum dose. Pyrantel is dosed at 5 to 10 mg/kg in the combination products studied [1]. In the Drontal Tasty study of hunting dogs, the product combined febantel, pyrantel embonate, and praziquantel, and efficacy was measured by fecal egg count reduction at days 7 and 14 [4]. Praziquantel is dosed at 5 mg/kg for Echinococcus and other tapeworms [2][3]. Milbemycin oxime is dosed at 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg in the control product used in the European field study [1]. Moxidectin is dosed at 0.025 to 0.050 mg/kg in the fluralaner combination field study [1] and at 0.02 mg/kg in the lotilaner combination laboratory studies [2]. These are narrow ranges. A 20 kg dog given a product labeled for 10 to 20 mg/kg of fluralaner would need 200 to 400 mg of fluralaner. A 5 kg puppy given the same product would need 50 to 100 mg. The chew sizes are designed to match these bands, which is why splitting or doubling chews is not a safe shortcut. Puppies need special attention. Many dewormers are labeled for puppies from 2 weeks of age, but the exact minimum age and weight differ by product. The label is the authority. A puppy that is too young or too small for a product should not receive it. Collie-type breeds and other dogs with the MDR1 mutation need special attention with macrocyclic lactones. The MDR1 gene codes for P-glycoprotein, a pump that keeps certain drugs out of the brain. Dogs with a defective MDR1 gene can develop neurologic signs such as tremors, ataxia, and hypersalivation after doses of ivermectin, milbemycin, or moxidectin that are safe for other dogs. This is a breed and genetic issue, not a size issue. Collies, Australian Shepherds, Shetland Sheepdogs, and related breeds should be tested or treated with products labeled safe for MDR1-affected dogs. Your veterinarian can advise on the right product. ## Comparison of Dewormer Classes | Class | Example drugs | Spectrum | Common formulations | Label dose range | Key caution | |--|--|--|--|--|--| | Tetrahydropyrimidine | Pyrantel pamoate, pyrantel embonate | Ascarids, hookworms | Tablet, chew, suspension, spot-on combination | 5 to 10 mg/kg [1] | Resistance reported in hookworms [5] | | Benzimidazole | Fenbendazole, febantel | Ascarids, hookworms, whipworms, some tapeworms | Granules, suspension, chew, combination tablet | Combination label dose [4] | Benzimidazole resistance markers detected in A. caninum [6] | | Isoquinolone | Praziquantel | Tapeworms including Echinococcus, Dipylidium, Taenia | Tablet, injectable, combination chew | 5 mg/kg [2][3] | Rare resistance reported in Dipylidium [10] | | Macrocyclic lactone | Milbemycin oxime, moxidectin | Heartworm prevention, ascarids, hookworms, whipworms | Tablet, chew, spot-on, injectable | Milbemycin 0.5 to 1.0 mg/kg [1], moxidectin 0.02 to 0.05 mg/kg [1][2] | MDR1 caution in collie-type breeds | | Cyclooctadepsipeptide | Emodepside | Ascarids, hookworms, whipworms | Combination tablet | Combination label dose [11] | Prescription only | | Multi-class combination | Lotilaner, moxidectin, praziquantel, pyrantel | Fleas, ticks, heartworm, intestinal worms, Echinococcus | Chew | 20 mg/kg lotilaner, 0.02 mg/kg moxidectin, 5 mg/kg praziquantel, 5 mg/kg pyrantel [2] | Broad spectrum, prescription only | This table is a starting point for a conversation with your veterinarian. It is not a dosing chart for home use. ## How to Give Worm Medicine Most dewormers are given orally as a tablet, chew, or suspension. Some are spot-on liquids applied to the skin between the shoulder blades. A few are injectable and are given only by a veterinarian. Oral tablets and chews are usually given with or without food. Some products are flavored to improve acceptance. If your dog spits out a chew, do not assume the dose was absorbed. Ask your veterinarian whether to repeat the dose. Spot-on products must be applied to skin, not fur, and the dog must not be bathed or allowed to swim for the period stated on the label. Dogs that lick the application site can get a small amount of the drug in their mouth, which is usually not dangerous but can cause drooling. Praziquantel injections are given by a veterinarian, usually for dogs that cannot take oral medication. Timing matters for heartworm preventives. They are given monthly or at the interval on the label. Missing a dose leaves a gap in protection. If you miss a dose, contact your veterinarian about testing and restarting. ## Side Effects and What to Do Most dogs tolerate dewormers well. The most common side effects are mild and short-lived. Vomiting, diarrhea, and reduced appetite can occur after any oral dewormer. These usually resolve within a day. If vomiting happens within an hour of dosing, the drug may not have been absorbed, and your veterinarian may recommend repeating the dose. Drooling, head shaking, and lip smacking can happen after spot-on products or flavored chews. These are usually taste reactions, not toxicity. Neurologic signs are the most serious concern. Tremors, wobbling, dilated pupils, and hypersalivation after a macrocyclic lactone can indicate MDR1-related toxicity. This is a medical emergency. Contact a veterinarian or pet poison control immediately. Allergic reactions are rare but possible. Hives, facial swelling, and difficulty breathing require immediate veterinary care. If your dog has a history of seizures, liver disease, or kidney disease, tell your veterinarian before giving any dewormer. Dose adjustments or different products may be needed. ## Which Dogs Should Not Receive Certain Dewormers Puppies under the minimum age or weight on the label should not receive that product. Use a product labeled for their age and weight. Pregnant and nursing dogs should receive only products labeled safe for pregnancy and lactation. Some dewormers are safe, and some are not. Dogs with the MDR1 mutation should avoid high-dose macrocyclic lactones. Your veterinarian can choose a product with a safer profile or a lower dose. Dogs with known allergies to a drug class should not receive that class again. Dogs that are already infected with adult heartworms should not start a heartworm preventive without veterinary guidance. Giving a preventive to an infected dog can cause a reaction as the dying microfilariae trigger an immune response. ## Fecal Testing Schedule Fecal testing is the only way to know which worms your dog has. Treating without testing leads to unnecessary drug exposure and missed infections. For puppies, the schedule is frequent. Test every 2 to 4 weeks until 12 weeks of age, then continue periodic testing as your veterinarian recommends. Puppies can acquire roundworms and hookworms from their mother before birth or through nursing, so early and repeated testing is standard. For adult dogs, test 2 to 4 times per year. Dogs with high exposure, such as hunting dogs, dogs that visit dog parks, and dogs that eat prey or raw meat, may need more frequent testing. A study of abandoned fecal samples from dog parks in central Appalachia found parasitic infection in 26.9 percent of samples, with hookworm the most common at 18.8 percent [12]. Another study of 505 dogs in Switzerland found Toxocara canis in 7.1 percent, hookworms in 6.9 percent, and Trichuris vulpis in 5.5 percent [13]. These numbers show why routine testing matters even in dogs that look healthy. A study of Dutch household dogs found that the overall prevalence of dogs shedding Toxocara eggs was 4.6 percent, and dogs that ranged off-leash 50 to 80 percent of the time had a much higher risk of shedding Toxocara eggs than dogs that were mostly on-leash [14]. Coprophagy and recent kenneling were also risk factors. Fecal egg counts correlate with worm burden. A retrospective analysis of 211 dogs with Uncinaria stenocephala, 233 with Toxocara canis, 33 with Toxascaris leonina, and 245 with Trichuris vulpis found that fecal egg count was the only significant predictor of adult worm count for all four species [15]. That means a fecal test is not just a yes-or-no answer. It estimates how heavy the infection is. Even regular deworming does not guarantee a worm-free dog. A Swiss study treated 111 dogs every 3 months with pyrantel, praziquantel, and febantel and collected monthly fecal samples for a year. The yearly incidence of Toxocara canis was 32 percent, and hookworms, Trichuris vulpis, Capillaria species, and Taeniidae reached incidences of 11 to 22 percent. Fifty-seven percent of the dogs had helminth eggs in their feces at least once during the year [13]. This is why testing and treatment go together. ## Zoonotic Risk: Why Dog Worms Matter to People Two dog worms are especially important to human health: Toxocara canis and Echinococcus species. Toxocara canis is the dog roundworm. People, especially children, can accidentally ingest infective eggs from soil contaminated with dog feces. The larvae migrate through tissues and cause visceral or ocular larva migrans. A study of Portuguese pet owners found that only 35.2 percent knew the meaning of zoonosis, even though many had heard the word [16]. Another study of Dutch dog owners found that most owners dewormed for the dog's health, not for human health, and only 16 percent dewormed four times a year [14]. Owner awareness is a major gap in preventing human exposure. Echinococcus granulosus and E. multilocularis cause cystic and alveolar echinococcosis in people. Dogs are the definitive hosts and shed eggs in their feces. The ten-year mortality rate of alveolar echinococcosis is extremely high, 94 percent, if patients are not given sustained treatment [8]. A case report from western Canada described a 13-month-old dog with intestinal E. multilocularis that had no endoparasite preventive care, exposure to coyotes and rodents, and intermittent raw food feeding. The dog was treated with milbemycin oxime and praziquantel, and the owner was advised to provide monthly praziquantel deworming for all dogs on the property and to contact a human health care provider because of zoonotic exposure risk [17]. Praziquantel is the key drug for reducing Echinococcus shedding. A study in southeastern Iran treated 150 owned dogs with a single oral dose of praziquantel at 5 mg/kg and found reinfection at 2, 5, and 12 months, which shows that one dose is not enough in endemic areas [3]. A study in southern Italy treated shepherd dogs every 2 months with praziquantel as part of a control strategy in a highly endemic area [18]. For most US pet dogs, the zoonotic risk from Echinococcus is low. The risk is higher in dogs that roam, hunt, or eat raw meat or offal. Your veterinarian can tell you whether praziquantel is needed for your dog based on lifestyle and local risk. ## How to Choose a Worm Medicine Start with the parasites your dog is actually exposed to. A dog that never leaves the yard has a different risk profile than a hunting dog that eats prey. Match the product to the parasites you need to cover. If you need heartworm prevention, choose a macrocyclic lactone. If you need tapeworm coverage, choose a product with praziquantel. If you need broad intestinal coverage, choose a combination. Check the label for the minimum age and weight. Puppies need products labeled for puppies. Check for MDR1 risk if your dog is a collie-type breed. Ask your veterinarian about testing. Check the formulation. Some dogs take chews easily. Others need tablets hidden in food or a spot-on product. Check the interval. Heartworm preventives are monthly. Intestinal dewormers may be given once and repeated, or on a schedule. Follow the label and your veterinarian's advice. ## Questions to Ask Your Veterinarian 1. Which worms are most likely in my dog based on age, lifestyle, and region? 2. Which product covers those worms and is safe for my dog's age, weight, and breed? 3. Does my dog need a heartworm test before starting a preventive? 4. Should my dog be tested for the MDR1 mutation? 5. How often should I bring in a fecal sample? 6. What should I do if my dog vomits after a dose? 7. Do I need to treat my other pets or the environment? 8. Is there a zoonotic risk to my family, and what should we do about it? ## Limitations and When to Contact a Veterinarian This article covers general principles. It does not replace an examination, a fecal test, or a prescription tailored to your dog. Contact a veterinarian if your dog has vomiting or diarrhea that lasts more than a day, blood in the stool, weight loss, a pot-bellied appearance, or visible worms in the stool or vomit. Contact a veterinarian immediately if your dog has tremors, wobbling, dilated pupils, difficulty breathing, or facial swelling after a dewormer. Contact a veterinarian if your dog has been diagnosed with heartworm or if you miss more than one monthly preventive dose. Contact a veterinarian if you are unsure which product to use, especially for puppies, pregnant dogs, or collie-type breeds. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the best worm medicine for dogs? There is no single best product. The right choice depends on which worms your dog is exposed to, your dog's age and weight, and whether you need heartworm prevention. A combination product that covers multiple classes is often the most practical. ### Can I give my dog worm medicine without a fecal test? Yes, many over-the-counter dewormers can be given without a test, but testing is better. Fecal testing tells you which worms are present and whether treatment worked. ### How often should I deworm my dog? It depends on the product and your dog's risk. Puppies are dewormed more often than adults. Adult dogs with high exposure may need monthly or quarterly deworming, while low-risk dogs may need less. Follow the label and your veterinarian's advice. ### Do dog dewormers kill heartworms? No. Heartworm preventives kill the larval stages before they reach the heart. They do not kill adult heartworms. A dog with adult heartworms needs a different treatment plan. ### Can worm medicine make my dog sick? Mild vomiting, diarrhea, and drooling can happen. Serious neurologic signs can occur in dogs with the MDR1 mutation after macrocyclic lactones. Contact a veterinarian if signs are severe or persistent. ### Are worm meds for dogs safe for puppies? Many are safe for puppies from 2 weeks of age, but the minimum age and weight differ by product. Always check the label and ask your veterinarian. ### Can I get worms from my dog? Yes. Toxocara canis and Echinococcus species can infect people. Good hygiene, prompt removal of feces, and regular deworming reduce the risk. ### What should I do if my dog still has worms after treatment? Retest with a fecal sample. Some worms are resistant to certain drugs, and a different product may be needed. Do not repeat the same dose without veterinary guidance. ```mermaid flowchart TD A[Dog has worms or risk] --> B{Fecal test done} B -->|No| C[Collect fecal sample] B -->|Yes| D{Which worms found} C --> D D --> E{Roundworms or hookworms} D --> F{Tapeworms} D --> G{Heartworm risk} E --> H[Pyrantel or fenbendazole or emodepside] F --> I[Praziquantel] G --> J[Milbemycin or moxidectin] H --> K[Recheck fecal test] I --> K J --> L[Monthly preventive] K --> M{Treatment worked} M -->|No| N[Reassess with veterinarian] M -->|Yes| O[Continue schedule] ``` ## Related Articles - [Pharmacotherapy in Avian Medicine](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/exotic-animal-medicine/pharmacotherapy-in-avian-medicine-dosing-routes-and-compounding-considerations-for-psittacines-and-p) - [Med Degree](/blog/careers/med-degree) - [Gastrointestinal Nematodes in Sheep: Types, Diagnosis, and Control](/knowledge/parasites/livestock-parasites/sheep-worms-types) - [Radiographic Artifacts in Veterinary Medicine: Identification and Prevention](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/radiographic-artifacts-veterinary-medicine-identification-prevention) - [Dog Separation Anxiety Meds](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/behavior/dog-separation-anxiety-meds) - [Flea And Tick Meds For Dogs](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/parasitic-diseases/flea-and-tick-meds-for-dogs) - [Ranitidine in Veterinary Medicine: Uses and Dosing](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-pharmacology/ranitidine-in-veterinary-medicine-uses-and-dosing) - [Dog Antifungal Medication: Options, Doses, and Safety](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/pet-medication-guide/dog-antifungal-medication-options-doses-and-safety) - [Medication for Collapsing Trachea in Dogs: Drug Guide](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/pet-medication-guide/medication-for-collapsing-trachea-in-dogs-drug-guide) ## Sources 1. 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