# When to Neuter a Dog: Testosterone Cancer Risk Balance Guide
## Key Takeaways
- The optimal timing for neutering is a breed-size, sex, and lifestyle-dependent risk-benefit analysis, balancing hormonal protection against disease risks. Small breeds (<15 kg) are often neutered at 6-12 months, while large/giant breeds benefit from delayed neutering until 12-24 months to allow musculoskeletal maturation and reduce orthopaedic disease risk.
- Testosterone plays a dual role: it promotes the development of secondary sexual characteristics and behaviours but also drives androgen-dependent cancers like perianal gland tumours and benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH). Neutering eliminates testicular cancer risk and significantly reduces perianal tumours and BPH.
- Spaying female dogs before their first heat cycle drastically reduces mammary cancer risk, with risk increasing with each subsequent cycle; this is a primary consideration for female sterilization.
- Early neutering, particularly in large breeds, is associated with an increased risk of orthopaedic conditions such as hip dysplasia, cranial cruciate ligament rupture, and elbow dysplasia due to delayed growth plate closure.
- While neutering reduces certain testosterone-driven behaviours (marking, roaming), some studies suggest it may be linked to increased fear-related behaviours or aggression in certain individuals, underscoring the importance of training and socialisation.
- Beyond neutering status, long-term health monitoring, including regular veterinary check-ups, weight management, and parasite control, is crucial for all dogs, as neutered dogs are at higher risk for obesity.
---
Deciding when to neuter a [dog](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-methods/dog) is one of the most significant preventive health decisions an owner will make. There is no single "perfect age" that fits every breed, sex, or lifestyle. The optimal timing balances the protective effects of gonadal hormones against the risks of certain cancers and orthopaedic disease. For most dogs, the decision involves weighing the risk of testosterone-driven conditions, such as benign prostatic hyperplasia and certain perianal tumours, against the protective effects of testosterone on bone development and joint stability.
This guide provides a source-grounded framework for owners and veterinary professionals. It synthesises current evidence on how neutering status affects cancer risk, behaviour, and physical health. The goal is not to recommend a universal age, but to provide the questions and evidence needed to make an informed decision with your veterinarian.
**The direct answer:** The ideal age to neuter a dog depends on breed size, sex, and intended purpose. For small-breed dogs (<15 kg), neutering around 6 to 12 months is common. For large and giant breeds, many specialists recommend waiting until 12 to 24 months to allow musculoskeletal maturation. However, this must be balanced against the risk of unintended pregnancy, behavioural issues, and specific cancer risks. This decision is always a personalised risk-benefit analysis.
This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment.
---
## At a Glance: The Neutering Decision Table
The following table summarises the key considerations that influence neutering timing. It is a clinical aid, not a strict protocol. Individual dog factors and owner circumstances always take precedence.
| Factor | Early Neutering (Before 6 months) | Traditional Neutering (6 to 12 months) | Delayed Neutering (12 to 24 months or later) |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **Testicular Cancer Risk** | Eliminated | Eliminated | Eliminated after surgery; risk present while intact |
| **Prostatic Disease Risk** | Reduced | Reduced | Reduced after surgery; risk present while intact |
| **Orthopaedic Development** | Potential increased risk of joint disorders in large breeds | May be acceptable for small breeds; risk in large breeds unclear | Allows natural growth plate closure; preferred for large/giant breeds |
| **Behavioural Effects** | May reduce urine marking and roaming early | May reduce testosterone-driven behaviours | Allows full behavioural maturation; may preserve some learned behaviours |
| **Urinary Incontinence Risk** | Higher risk in spayed females | Moderate risk | Lower risk in females |
| **Mammary Cancer Risk (Females)** | Lowest risk if spayed before first heat | Low risk | Increasing risk with each heat cycle |
| **Surgical Considerations** | Requires smaller surgical field; anaesthetic risk slightly higher | Standard surgical risk | Standard surgical risk; may be higher if obese |
---
## Understanding the Role of Testosterone
Testosterone is the primary androgen produced by the testes. It drives the development of secondary sexual characteristics, influences behaviour, and has significant effects on non-reproductive tissues, including bone, muscle, and the prostate gland.
### Physiology of Testosterone
In the intact male dog, testosterone is produced by the interstitial (Leydig) cells of the testes under the control of luteinising hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland. Testosterone levels rise during puberty, typically between 6 and 12 months of age, and remain elevated in the adult dog. This hormone is responsible for:
- **Sexual behaviour:** Mounting, roaming, and urine marking.
- **Secondary sex characteristics:** Increased muscle mass, thicker skin, and prostatic development.
- **Bone health:** Testosterone contributes to the closure of growth plates (epiphyseal plates). Early removal of testosterone delays growth plate closure, which can lead to taller bones but may also increase the risk of certain orthopaedic conditions.
### The Testosterone-Cancer Connection
The relationship between testosterone and cancer is complex. Testosterone itself is not a direct carcinogen, but it acts as a growth promoter for certain tissues. This is particularly evident in the prostate gland and in perianal (hepatoid) glands.
- **Prostatic disease:** The prostate gland is androgen-dependent. In intact dogs, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is the most common prostatic disorder, affecting over 80% of intact male dogs over 5 years of age. BPH is driven by the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) within the prostate. Neutering removes the source of testosterone, leading to prostatic involution and resolution of BPH. Prostatic cancer, while rare, is often aggressive and can occur in both intact and neutered dogs.
- **Perianal gland tumours:** These tumours, also known as hepatoid gland tumours, are strongly androgen-dependent. They occur most frequently in intact male dogs, particularly in the perianal region. Neutering is both a preventive and a therapeutic measure for these tumours. The risk of these tumours is virtually eliminated by castration.
- **Other cancers:** The relationship between neutering and other cancers is more complex. For example, some studies have suggested that neutering may increase the risk of certain cancers, such as haemangiosarcoma and lymphosarcoma, although the evidence is not consistent. The approved sources for this article do not provide data on these specific cancers, so they are not discussed in detail here.
### The Protective Role of Testosterone
While testosterone promotes certain cancers, it also has protective effects, particularly on the musculoskeletal system. Testosterone promotes the closure of growth plates at the appropriate time for the breed. In large and giant breeds, which have a longer growth phase, early neutering can lead to:
- **Delayed growth plate closure:** This can result in a taller dog with longer limbs, but it may also lead to abnormal joint angles and increased stress on the joints.
- **Increased risk of orthopaedic disease:** Several studies have linked early neutering (before 12 months) in large breeds to an increased risk of hip dysplasia, cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) rupture, and elbow dysplasia. This is a critical consideration for owners of large-breed dogs.
---
## Cancer Risk Profiles: Intact vs. Neutered
The decision to neuter is often framed as a way to reduce cancer risk. This is true for some cancers but not for all. It is essential to have a nuanced understanding of how neutering affects different types of cancer.
### Cancers Reduced by Neutering
- **Testicular cancer:** This is the most direct benefit. Castration eliminates the risk of testicular neoplasia, which is relatively common in older intact dogs. While most testicular tumours are benign, some (Sertoli cell tumours) can produce oestrogen, leading to bone marrow suppression and feminisation syndrome.
- **Perianal gland tumours:** As discussed, these are androgen-dependent. Castration is the primary treatment and prevention.
- **Prostatic disease (BPH):** While not a cancer, BPH is a common, clinically significant condition in intact males. Neutering is the definitive treatment.
- **Mammary cancer (in females):** This is a major consideration for spaying. The risk of mammary cancer in dogs is significantly reduced if spaying is performed before the first heat cycle. The risk increases with each subsequent heat cycle. Spaying before the first heat reduces the risk to near zero, while spaying after the second heat provides much less protection. This is a key factor in the decision for female dogs.
### Cancers Potentially Increased by Neutering
Some retrospective studies have suggested a potential link between neutering and an increased risk of certain cancers, including:
- **Haemangiosarcoma:** A cancer of the blood vessel walls, more common in certain breeds like Golden Retrievers.
- **Lymphosarcoma (Lymphoma):** A cancer of the lymphatic system.
- **Mast cell tumours:** A common skin cancer.
The evidence for these links is mixed and often breed-specific. The approved sources for this article do not provide data on these specific cancers. Therefore, this article does not make definitive claims about them. The decision should be based on the most robust evidence available for the specific breed and the individual dog's risk factors.
### Case Study: Periorbital Tumours and Neutering Status
A 2026 retrospective case series on periorbital tumours in dogs provides an interesting insight into the demographics of cancer patients [1]. The study included four dogs: one spayed female, one intact male, and two neutered males. This small sample shows that tumours can occur in both intact and neutered dogs, highlighting that neutering does not eliminate all cancer risk. The most common clinical signs were slowly progressive exophthalmos (bulging of the eye) and epiphora (excessive tearing). This case series underscores that any new lump or swelling, regardless of neuter status, should be evaluated by a veterinarian.
Another case report describes a 14-year-old neutered male dog with ectopic splenic tissue that mimicked malignant neoplasia [2]. This case is a reminder that not all masses are cancerous, and that neutered dogs can still develop significant, albeit benign, masses. The dog had a history of splenectomy for a benign lesion, and the new masses were found to be benign ectopic splenic tissue. This highlights the importance of histopathology for definitive diagnosis.
---
## Behavioural Considerations: The Testosterone-Behaviour Link
Testosterone significantly influences behaviour. Neutering can reduce or eliminate certain testosterone-driven behaviours, but it is not a cure-all for all behavioural problems. The effects of neutering on behaviour are complex and vary by individual, breed, and age at the time of surgery.
### Behaviours Reduced by Neutering
- **Urine marking:** Intact male dogs are more likely to urine mark their territory. Neutering reduces this behaviour in most dogs.
- **Roaming:** The urge to roam in search of a mate is driven by testosterone. Neutering reduces this drive.
- **Mounting:** Sexual mounting behaviour is reduced after neutering.
- **Inter-male aggression:** Aggression directed at other male dogs is often testosterone-related and can be reduced by neutering.
### Behaviours Potentially Worsened by Neutering
A 2026 study using the C-BARQ questionnaire in terrier-type dogs found that neutered dogs showed higher scores for non-social fear, touch sensitivity, and aggression toward conspecifics (other dogs) and strangers [3]. This study suggests that neutering may be associated with an increase in fear-related behaviours and aggression in some dogs. The study also found that participation in breed-specific cynological activities (like working trials) was associated with lower scores in owner-directed aggression and fear, suggesting that training and mental stimulation are also critical factors.
This does not mean that neutering causes aggression. It means that the relationship between neutering and behaviour is not a simple one. For some dogs, the loss of testosterone may lead to increased anxiety, which can manifest as fear-based aggression. This is an important consideration for owners of dogs with existing fear or anxiety issues.
### The Role of Training and Environment
The same study highlighted that environmental and management factors, such as participation in structured activities, had a more consistent association with positive behavioural outcomes than neuter status alone [3]. This suggests that a well-trained, well-socialised dog is less likely to have behavioural problems, regardless of whether it is intact or neutered. Neutering should be viewed as one tool in a comprehensive behavioural management plan, not as a standalone solution.
---
## Orthopaedic Health: The Case for Delayed Neutering
The most compelling argument for delaying neutering, particularly in large and giant breeds, is the potential impact on orthopaedic health. Testosterone and oestrogen are both involved in the maturation of the skeleton.
### How Hormones Affect Bone Development
Growth plates (physes) are the areas of growing bone at the ends of long bones. They are responsible for longitudinal bone growth. Sex hormones, including testosterone and oestrogen, are involved in the process of growth plate closure. When a dog is neutered before puberty, the absence of these hormones can delay growth plate closure. This can lead to:
- **Increased bone length:** The bones continue to grow for a longer period, resulting in a taller dog.
- **Altered joint conformation:** The delayed closure can lead to abnormal angles in the joints, which can increase stress on the articular cartilage and ligaments.
### The Link to Joint Disease
Several studies have shown an association between early neutering and an increased risk of joint disorders, including:
- **Hip Dysplasia:** A genetic condition where the hip joint does not develop properly, leading to arthritis.
- **Cranial Cruciate Ligament (CCL) Rupture:** A common knee injury.
- **Elbow Dysplasia:** A developmental abnormality of the elbow joint.
The risk is particularly pronounced in large and giant breeds, such as Labrador Retrievers, Golden Retrievers, German Shepherds, and Rottweilers. For these breeds, many veterinary specialists recommend waiting until 12 to 24 months of age before neutering to allow for skeletal maturity.
### A Note on Small Breeds
The risk of orthopaedic disease associated with early neutering is much lower in small-breed dogs. These dogs have a shorter growth phase and are less prone to developmental orthopaedic conditions. For small breeds, neutering at 6 to 12 months is generally considered safe and is a common recommendation.
---
## The "When to Neuter" Decision Framework
Given the complex interplay of cancer risk, orthopaedic health, and behaviour, how should an owner decide? The following framework can help guide the conversation with a veterinarian.
### Step 1: Assess the Individual Dog
- **Breed and Size:** Is the dog a small, medium, large, or giant breed? This is the most critical factor. Large and giant breeds are at higher risk for orthopaedic problems if neutered early.
- **Sex:** The decision for females is heavily influenced by the risk of mammary cancer. The decision for males is more focused on prostatic and perianal disease, which are less life-threatening than mammary cancer.
- **Temperament and Behaviour:** Does the dog have existing fear or anxiety issues? If so, neutering may exacerbate these. Does the dog exhibit strong testosterone-driven behaviours like roaming or marking? If so, neutering may be beneficial.
- **Lifestyle and Environment:** Is the dog at risk of unintended pregnancy? Is the dog an intact male living with an intact female? Is the dog used for working or sporting activities where muscle mass and joint health are important?
### Step 2: Weigh the Risks and Benefits
| Consideration | Benefit of Early Neutering | Benefit of Delayed Neutering |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| **Cancer Prevention** | Eliminates testicular cancer risk; reduces perianal tumour risk; reduces mammary cancer risk (if spayed before first heat). | Allows for natural hormonal development, which may protect against some cancers, though this is not proven. |
| **Orthopaedic Health** | May reduce the risk of certain behavioural issues. | Allows for natural growth plate closure, reducing the risk of hip dysplasia, CCL rupture, and elbow dysplasia in large breeds. |
| **Behaviour** | Reduces urine marking, roaming, and mounting. | Allows for full behavioural maturation; may preserve some learned behaviours and reduce fear-related aggression in some dogs. |
| **Population Control** | Prevents unwanted pregnancies. | Risk of unintended pregnancy if the dog is not managed carefully. |
### Step 3: Discuss with a Veterinarian
The final decision must be made in consultation with a veterinarian who knows the individual dog. The veterinarian can assess the dog's overall health, discuss the specific risks and benefits for the breed, and help the owner make an informed choice. This is not a decision that should be made based on internet forums or anecdotal advice.
---
## Veterinary Examination and Diagnostics
Before any neutering surgery, a thorough veterinary examination is essential. This helps ensure the dog is healthy enough for anaesthesia and surgery.
### Pre-Surgical Evaluation
- **Physical Examination:** A full physical exam, including auscultation of the heart and lungs, is the first step.
- **Blood Tests:** Pre-anaesthetic blood work (complete blood count and serum biochemistry profile) is recommended to assess organ function and rule out underlying disease.
- **Diagnostic Imaging:** In some cases, especially for older dogs or those with suspected underlying conditions, chest X-rays or abdominal ultrasound may be recommended.
### The Surgical Procedure
- **Castration (Male):** The surgical removal of the testicles. This is a routine procedure that involves making an incision in front of the scrotum and removing the testicles.
- **Ovariohysterectomy (Female, "Spay"):** The surgical removal of the ovaries and uterus. This is a more invasive procedure than a castration, involving an incision in the abdomen.
### Post-Operative Care
Post-operative care is crucial for a smooth recovery. This typically includes:
- **Pain Management:** The veterinarian will prescribe pain medication.
- **Rest:** The dog should be restricted from running, jumping, and strenuous activity for 10 to 14 days.
- **Incision Care:** The incision site should be checked daily for signs of infection (redness, swelling, discharge).
- **E-Collar (Elizabethan Collar):** An E-collar is essential to prevent the dog from licking or chewing at the incision site.
### A Note on Surgical Technique: Aquapuncture
A 2026 study explored the use of aquapuncture (injecting vitamin B12 into an acupoint) to reduce intraoperative bleeding during ovariohysterectomy [4]. The study found that dogs receiving the aquapuncture at a specific acupoint (GV-5) had significantly less weight-normalized blood loss than control groups. While this is a specific technique that may not be widely available, it highlights the ongoing efforts to improve surgical safety and outcomes. This is not a standard recommendation but is an interesting area of research.
---
## Unsafe Home Remedies and Misconceptions
There are many myths and unsafe practices surrounding neutering and hormonal health. It is critical to rely on veterinary guidance.
- **"Natural" Hormone Supplements:** There are no proven "natural" supplements that can replicate the benefits of testosterone or oestrogen or that can prevent the risks associated with neutering. Do not use unregulated supplements.
- **Delaying Neutering for "One More Litter":** This is a common but risky practice. It increases the risk of mammary cancer in females and contributes to pet overpopulation.
- **Using Human Hormone Therapies:** Never give a dog human hormone medications. These can be toxic and cause severe health problems.
- **Ignoring Lumps:** Any new lump, especially in an intact dog, should be checked by a veterinarian. Early detection of tumours like perianal adenomas or testicular tumours is critical for successful treatment.
---
## Prevention and Long-Term Health Monitoring
Regardless of the neutering decision, all dogs require lifelong preventive care.
- **Regular Veterinary Check-ups:** Annual or bi-annual exams are essential for early detection of health problems.
- **Dental Care:** Dental disease is common in dogs. The 2026 study on anti-poaching dogs in Kruger National Park found a high prevalence of dentoalveolar trauma and tooth wear [5]. Interestingly, the study found that castrated males had more fourth premolar fractures and enamel defects than intact males. This is a specific finding in a specific working-dog population, but it underscores that neutering status may have subtle effects on other aspects of health, such as dental health, that require further study. Regular dental check-ups and cleanings are vital.
- **Weight Management:** Neutered dogs have lower energy requirements and are at higher risk for obesity. A 2026 pilot study on the serum lipidome of dogs with obesity found significant changes in lipid profiles after weight loss [6]. This highlights the metabolic benefits of maintaining a healthy weight. Owners of neutered dogs must be vigilant about diet and exercise to prevent obesity, which can exacerbate orthopaedic problems and increase cancer risk.
- **Parasite Control:** Year-round flea, tick, and heartworm prevention is essential.
---
## Limitations and When to Contact a Veterinarian
This guide provides a framework, but it cannot predict the outcome for any individual dog. Breed-level data does not determine individual outcomes. A dog's specific genetic background, environment, and health status all play a role.
**You should contact your veterinarian immediately if you observe any of the following:**
- **Emergency Red Flags:**
- Difficulty breathing or choking.
- Inability to urinate or defecate.
- Severe vomiting or diarrhoea, especially with blood.
- Sudden weakness, collapse, or seizures.
- A swollen, painful abdomen.
- Signs of severe pain (whining, panting, restlessness, aggression).
- **Post-Surgical Red Flags:**
- Incision site that is red, swollen, or has a foul-smelling discharge.
- Dehiscence (the incision opening up).
- Lethargy or inappetence lasting more than 24 hours after surgery.
- **Cancer Warning Signs:**
- Any new lump or bump that persists for more than a few weeks.
- Unexplained weight loss.
- Changes in appetite or thirst.
- Difficulty eating or swallowing.
- Non-healing sores.
---
## Frequently Asked Questions
### 1. What is the best age to neuter a small-breed dog?
For small-breed dogs (under 15 kg), neutering is commonly performed between 6 and 12 months of age. The risk of orthopaedic problems associated with early neutering is lower in small breeds, so the benefits of early cancer prevention and population control often outweigh the risks.
### 2. Should I wait to neuter my large-breed dog?
Many veterinary specialists recommend waiting until 12 to 24 months of age for large and giant breeds. This allows for natural growth plate closure, which may reduce the risk of hip dysplasia, elbow dysplasia, and cranial cruciate ligament rupture. This decision must be balanced against the risk of unintended pregnancy and behavioural issues.
### 3. Does neutering increase the risk of cancer in dogs?
The evidence is mixed. Neutering significantly reduces the risk of testicular, perianal, and mammary cancer. Some studies suggest a potential link between neutering and an increased risk of other cancers, such as haemangiosarcoma and lymphoma, but this is not consistent across all studies or breeds. It is a topic to discuss with your veterinarian.
### 4. Will neutering my dog change his personality?
Neutering can reduce testosterone-driven behaviours like urine marking, roaming, and mounting. However, it does not change a dog's core personality. Some studies have shown that neutered dogs may be more prone to fear-related behaviours, which is why training and socialisation are crucial.
### 5. What are the risks of not neutering my male dog?
The primary risks of leaving a male dog intact include testicular cancer, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and perianal gland tumours. There is also the risk of roaming, fighting with other males, and unintended pregnancies.
### 6. What is the relationship between testosterone and prostate cancer in dogs?
Testosterone drives the development of benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), which is a non-cancerous enlargement of the prostate. Neutering is the treatment for BPH. Prostatic cancer is rare and aggressive, and its relationship to testosterone is not well understood. It can occur in both intact and neutered dogs.
### 7. Is it better to neuter a dog before or after the first heat cycle?
For female dogs, spaying before the first heat cycle provides the greatest protection against mammary cancer. The risk of mammary cancer increases with each heat cycle. Therefore, if you are not planning to breed, spaying before the first heat is generally recommended.
### 8. Can a neutered dog still get testicular cancer?
No. Castration (neutering) is the surgical removal of the testicles. Therefore, the risk of testicular cancer is completely eliminated after the procedure.
---
## Sources
[1] [Surgical and Conservative Management of Periorbital Tumors in Four Dogs.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42514724/)
[2] [Ectopic Splenic Tissue Mimicking Malignant Neoplasia in a Dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42433008/)
[3] [Participation in Breed-Specific Cynological Activities Is Associated with Behavioral Variation in Terrier-Type Dogs: A C-BARQ Study.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42450683/)
[4] [Evaluation of aquapuncture in the reduction of intraoperative hemorrhage in canine ovariohysterectomy.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42248196/)
[5] [Dentoalveolar Trauma and Tooth Wear in Anti-Poaching Dogs in Kruger National Park: Associations With Signalment and Operational Factors.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42484474/)
[6] [Dynamic shifts in the serum lipidome of dogs with obesity before and after weight loss: a pilot study.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42348249/)
[7] [Detection of Felis catus Gammaherpesvirus 1 in Cats, but not Dogs, in Türkiye: Prevalence and Risk Factors.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42405486/)
[8] [Serum insulin-like growth factor-1 concentrations are not reduced in Pomeranian dogs with Alopecia X: a case-control study.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42443886/)
[9] [Off-label use of dapagliflozin in a dog with recurrent calcium oxalate urolithiasis: a case report.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42414994/)
[10] [Middle cranial fossa syndrome presumptively secondary to leishmaniasis in a dog: A case report.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42375246/)
[11] [Radiographic Characteristics of Jujube Pit Foreign Bodies in a Dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42357749/)
[12] [Successful treatment of the first reported case of Prototheca wickerhamii infection in a dog living in Tasmania, Australia.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42309539/)
[13] [Chylopericardium in a Dog with Concurrent Chylothorax, Mesothelioma, and Bilateral Brachiocephalic Vein Thrombosis: A Case Report.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42514732/)
[14] [Modified Manual Therapeutic Plasma Exchange Technique as a Successful Treatment for Postattenuation Neurological Signs (PANS) in a Dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42502251/)
[15] [CT-Based Reference Ranges for Canine Pyloric Thickness: Influence of Body Size and Normalization With Aortic Diameter.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42499198/)
[16] [Pathological features of fibrous proliferative lesions of the vagina in dogs.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42476750/)
[17] [Invasive Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Larynx in a Dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42434020/)
[18] [Bilateral distal femoral trochlear block migration after medial patellar luxation surgery in a dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42400684/)
[19] [A pilot single-case longitudinal multi-omics of canine oral melanoma characterizes endogenous mutation patterns and radiotherapy-associated responses.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42342053/)
[20] [Unilateral phaeochromocytoma in a dog with pre-existing, long-standing primary hypoadrenocorticism: a case report.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42337531/)
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