# Holstein Cows: Milk Yield, Size and Health Issues The Holstein cow is the highest-producing dairy breed in the world and the backbone of commercial milk production in the United States and much of Europe. She descends from black-and-white cattle developed in the Netherlands, especially the provinces of North Holland and Friesland, and she is now found in nearly every dairy region on earth. A mature Holstein cow is large, weighing well over half a ton, and she is bred for one job: converting feed into large volumes of milk. That productivity comes with costs. Holsteins are more prone to mastitis, lameness, metabolic disease, heat stress, and infertility than many other breeds, and their productive lives are often short. This article covers the breed's origin, size, milk yield, health problems, and the practical care considerations that matter on small farms and large dairies alike. This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. ## Key Takeaways - Holstein cows are the world's highest-producing dairy breed, descended from black-and-white cattle developed in North Holland and Friesland in the Netherlands. - A mature Holstein cow weighs about 1,500 to 1,600 pounds (680 to 725 kg) and stands roughly 58 inches (147 cm) tall at the shoulder. - Holstein cows are more prone to mastitis, lameness, metabolic disease, heat stress, and infertility than many other breeds, with productive lives averaging roughly 2 to 3 lactations. - In a German study of 98 herds, subclinical mastitis occurred in 61.9% of lactations and clinical mastitis in 15.3%, making mastitis the most common recorded condition. - Holstein cows had the highest average daily milk yield among breeds compared in a North Tunisia heat-stress study, at 25.97 plus or minus 5 L per day. ## At a Glance | Attribute | Detail | |--|--| | Origin | Netherlands, especially North Holland and Friesland (Holstein-Friesian) | | Primary use | Dairy (milk production) | | Coat | Black-and-white or red-and-white | | Mature size | Large dairy breed, mature cows about 1,500 to 1,600 lb (680 to 725 kg) | | Milk yield | Among the highest of all dairy breeds [1] | | Temperament | Generally tractable dairy cattle handled in groups | | Lifespan | Productive life often short, averaging roughly 2 to 3 lactations in recorded herds [2] | | Good with children | Not a companion animal, handled as livestock | | Grooming | Routine livestock hygiene, not pet grooming | | Exercise | Pasture or drylot movement, managed by farm system | ## Origin and History: The Holstein-Friesian The Holstein cow traces to the lowlands of the Netherlands, especially the provinces of North Holland and Friesland. Cattle there were selected for heavy milk production for centuries, and the black-and-white animals that resulted became known as Holstein-Friesians. The double name comes from US herdbook societies that merged in 1885 to form the Holstein-Friesian Association of America. In North America, the breed became known simply as the Holstein, and in many countries the full name Holstein-Friesian is still used. The distinction between Holstein and Friesian types matters. The Friesian is the older, somewhat smaller, dual-purpose type that was traditionally kept in parts of Europe and the British Isles. The Holstein is the larger, higher-yielding, more dairy-specialized type that came to dominate North American and global commercial dairying. Over the twentieth century, selection pushed the Holstein toward greater stature and greater milk volume, and the two types diverged. Modern Holstein dairy cattle are bred almost exclusively for milk yield, while Friesian populations retained a more moderate frame and, in some lines, slightly better component percentages. Two coat colors exist within the breed. The classic Holstein is black-and-white. A recessive genetic variant produces the red-and-white Holstein, in which the black pigment is replaced by red. Red-and-white Holsteins are the same breed with the same production characteristics, and they are registered within Holstein breed associations. ## The Dominant Position of Holsteins in Dairy Herds The Holstein is the most numerous dairy breed in the United States and the most widely distributed dairy breed globally. Her dominance rests on a single trait: volume. Across production systems, Holstein cows consistently record the highest milk production traits among common dairy breeds [1]. In a study of Holstein, Jersey, and crossbred cows under subtropical conditions, Holstein cows exhibited the highest milk production traits, and breed-related differences became more pronounced in later parities [1]. This production advantage is why commercial dairies in the United States, Europe, and major exporting countries such as Australia and New Zealand rely so heavily on Holstein genetics. It is also why Holstein cows and Holstein crossbreds appear in tropical and subtropical dairy systems, often crossed with local Zebu cattle to combine milk yield with heat and parasite tolerance [3]. ## Appearance and Size The Holstein is a large, angular dairy breed with a deep barrel, prominent milk veins, and a well-attached udder. A mature Holstein cow typically weighs about 1,500 to 1,600 pounds (680 to 725 kg) and stands about 58 inches (147 cm) tall at the shoulder, a healthy calf weighs 90 pounds (41 kg) or more at birth, and mature bulls are considerably heavier. The breed's size is directly tied to its feed requirements and to the space and handling infrastructure a farm needs. Because Holstein cows are large and bred for high output, body condition and frame are managed carefully. Body weight and body condition are monitored through the transition period and early lactation, when cows mobilize fat reserves and lose condition [4]. Excessive size combined with poor footing increases the risk of injury and lameness, which is one reason facility design matters so much in Holstein herds. ## Milk Yield and Milk Composition Holstein milk production is the breed's defining feature. Holstein cows produce more milk than Jersey cows and other common dairy breeds, and this advantage holds across parities [1]. In a heat-stress study conducted in North Tunisia, Holstein cows had the highest average daily milk yield of the breeds compared, at 25.97 ± 5 L per day across the study period [5]. That figure reflects daily yield under summer heat stress, not a full-lactation total. For scale, US Holsteins enrolled in official production testing averaged about 28,000 pounds (12,700 kg) of milk per cow in 2021, according to Holstein Association USA. Herd-level milk yield is a useful benchmark. In a large German study of dairy herds in Schleswig-Holstein, herds were classified by whether average herd milk yield exceeded 7,500 kg per cow per year, a threshold used as a proxy for intensive versus extensive management [6]. Herd milk yield above that level was associated with a higher risk of clinical metritis and endometritis, which shows how tightly production intensity and health are linked [6]. Milk composition in Holsteins differs from that of higher-component breeds. Holstein milk is relatively lower in fat and protein percentage than Jersey milk, which is why Holstein milk is often described as high-volume, lower-component milk. Under heat stress, Holstein cows showed reduced fat and protein levels, while Brown Swiss cows remained more stable in composition [5]. This matters for farms paid on component pricing, where a Holstein's volume advantage can be partly offset by lower fat and protein percentages. Lifetime yield is another way to measure Holstein productivity. In a study of Holstein cows culled after their second to sixth parities, mean lifetime milk yield was 30,223 ± 374 kg, with mean days in milk of 371 ± 2.0 days [7]. In a much larger Danish dataset covering all dairy cows culled in 2019 to 2023, mean lifetime milk yield was 32,088 kg of energy-corrected milk, and milk yield per day of life rose from 7 kg in cows culled during their first lactation to more than 20 kg in cows culled in their fifth or later lactations [8]. These figures reflect whole-herd data, not just Holsteins, but they frame the scale of lifetime production in modern dairy herds. ## Holstein vs Jersey vs Ayrshire | Trait | Holstein | Jersey | Ayrshire | |--|--|--|--| | Milk volume | Highest among common dairy breeds [1] | Lower than Holstein [1] | Lower than Holstein | | Milk components | Lower fat and protein percentage, reduced under heat stress [5] | Higher components than Holstein | Moderate components | | Mature size | Large dairy breed | Smaller than Holstein | Smaller than Holstein | | Productive life | 739.33 ± 434.31 days and 2.37 ± 1.08 lactations in one large dataset [2] | 696.81 ± 415.44 days and 2.47 ± 1.13 lactations in the same dataset [2] | Not reported in the same dataset | | Leading culling reason | Infertility (37.94 ± 0.48%) [2] | Infertility (30.46 ± 0.63%) [2] | Not reported in the same dataset | | Mastitis culling | 18.15 ± 0.38% [2] | 18.16 ± 0.53% [2] | Not reported in the same dataset | | Heat tolerance | Poor, highest stress indicators among breeds compared [5] | Better than Holstein | Hardy, known for coping with harsh conditions | The comparison shows the trade-off at the heart of breed choice. Holsteins win on volume and lose on components, longevity, and heat tolerance. Jerseys produce less milk, complete a similar number of lactations, and are culled for low yield more often than Holsteins, which reflects different selection goals [2]. Ayrshires and other breeds fall between these poles, and crossbreeding is used to blend production with hardiness [1]. ## Temperament and Handling Holstein dairy cattle are handled as livestock, not as pets, and their temperament reflects generations of selection for manageability in groups. They are moved through parlors, chutes, and pens daily, and they respond to consistent handling and low-stress stockmanship. The breed is not aggressive by nature, but a mature Holstein cow is large enough to injure a handler accidentally, and bulls of any dairy breed should be handled with strict safety protocols. Behavior in Holsteins is closely tied to physiological stage and management. A study using neck collars and foot pedometers on Holstein dairy cattle found highly significant differences between groups in rumination, lying, standing duration, and number of steps, and milking frequency had a significant association with behavior across groups [9]. Heifers and dry cows behaved more similarly to each other than primiparous and multiparous lactating cows did [9]. These findings matter for anyone using activity monitors: behavior changes with lactation stage, parity, and milking schedule, so interpretation must account for those factors. ## Housing, Space, and Exercise Holstein cows need space appropriate to their size, and they need comfortable lying surfaces. In the heat-stress study, Brown Swiss cows spent more time lying (69.99%) than Montbéliard (48.88%) and Holstein (39.99%) cows, indicating that Holsteins lay down less under heat load [5]. Reduced lying time is a welfare concern because cows need adequate rest, and it is a signal that heat abatement is failing. Exercise and movement depend on the production system. Pasture-based and drylot systems allow walking and grazing, while confinement systems rely on alley design and stall comfort. Locomotor activity in Holsteins varies with physiological stage and milking frequency, and step counts and resting time are used as welfare indicators in precision livestock farming [9]. Facilities should provide non-slip flooring, adequate stall dimensions for a large breed, and shade or ventilation in hot climates. ## Feeding Considerations Holstein cows have high energy and protein demands because they produce large volumes of milk. Feed programs are built around forages, concentrates, and mineral balance, and they are adjusted through the transition period, early lactation, mid lactation, and the dry period. A large German study found that herds with higher milk yield had a higher risk of clinical metritis and endometritis, which underscores how intensive feeding and production pressure interact with health [6]. Feed additive research continues, for example on alpha-ketoglutarate to raise milk protein yield [10], but any ration change should be made with a veterinarian or nutritionist. Transition cow nutrition deserves special attention. In a study of multiparous Holstein cows, oral calcium supplementation at 2 and 3 days in milk increased milk yield in cows with high haptoglobin concentrations at 2 days in milk, indicating that inflammatory status modifies the response to calcium supplementation [11]. This suggests that transition management cannot be reduced to a single intervention applied uniformly. ## Health Issues in Holstein Cows The Holstein's high production and large frame create a specific disease profile. A large German study of 98 dairy herds and 6,439 lactations recorded lactational incidences of common diseases and provides a useful baseline for what farms actually see [6]. The recorded incidences were hypocalcemia (5.0%), dystocia (13.2%), retained placental membranes (7.2%), clinical metritis or endometritis (4.9%), clinical mastitis (15.3%), subclinical mastitis (61.9%), ketosis (1.6%), displaced abomasum (0.4%), and lameness (15.4%) [6]. These figures come from a specific region and management context, but they show the relative weight of each condition. ### Mastitis Mastitis is the most economically important disease of dairy cattle and a leading reason Holstein cows leave the herd. In the German study, clinical mastitis occurred in 15.3% of lactations and subclinical mastitis in 61.9%, making subclinical mastitis by far the most common condition recorded [6]. Lactation number was a risk factor, with clinical mastitis more likely in cows in their third or later lactation compared with first-lactation cows (OR 2.118), and subclinical mastitis risk rising with each lactation (OR 1.668 and 4.397 for second and third-or-later lactations) [6]. Mastitis is also a major culling driver. In South African Holstein and Jersey herds, mastitis accounted for 18.15 ± 0.38% of Holstein culls [2]. In southern Brazil, mastitis and high somatic cell count accounted for 20.4% of culls in predominantly Holstein herds [12]. Detection is a practical challenge, and daily milk yield records can be used to build mastitis monitoring frameworks, since milk yield declines before and around diagnosis [13]. ### Lameness Lameness is one of the most common and costly health problems in Holstein herds. The German study recorded a lactational incidence of 15.4%, and lactation number was a risk factor, with higher odds in second and later lactations (OR 1.275 and 2.070) [6]. In southern Brazil, feet and leg problems accounted for 17.9% of culls in predominantly Holstein herds [12]. Lameness reduces milk yield, and a classic study of Friesian, Ayrshire, and Holstein crossbred cows found a statistically significant milk yield difference of 1.1 kg per day between the week before and the week after clinical diagnosis of lameness [14]. Lameness has a notable genetic component. In a study of registered Holstein cows, heritability of lameness was 0.16, higher than most other disease traits measured, and the phenotypic correlation between lameness and rear leg set was 0.37 [15]. This supports including feet and leg conformation in selection decisions. ### Ketosis Ketosis is a metabolic disorder of early lactation driven by negative energy balance, and it is more common in older, higher-producing cows. The German study recorded a lactational incidence of 1.6%, with cows in their third or later lactation at roughly four times the risk of first-lactation cows (OR 3.936) [6]. Ketosis has one of the highest heritability estimates among disease traits in Holstein cows, at 0.39 in one study of registered cows [15]. Ketosis also causes measurable production loss. In the classic study of Friesian, Ayrshire, and Holstein crossbred cows, the milk yield difference between the week before and the week after clinical diagnosis of ketosis was 5.1 kg per day, the largest of any condition measured, and total losses associated with ketosis were estimated at 60 to 70 kg [14]. Milk yield declined for as much as two to four weeks before diagnosis, which means the production cost begins well before a cow looks sick [14]. ### Displaced Abomasum Displaced abomasum is a digestive disorder of the transition period, and it is relatively uncommon compared with mastitis and lameness. The German study recorded a lactational incidence of 0.4% [6]. In a study of registered Holstein cows, genetic correlations between disease traits and 305-day milk yield were mostly positive, ranging from 0.02 to 0.44, and only retained placenta had a negative genetic correlation with milk yield (-0.28) [15]. This pattern suggests that selection for high milk yield has not reduced genetic susceptibility to most of these disorders and may have increased it for some. ### Milk Fever (Hypocalcemia) Milk fever, or clinical hypocalcemia, occurs when calcium demand for colostrum and milk production outpaces the cow's ability to mobilize calcium at calving. The German study recorded a lactational incidence of 5.0%, and lactation number was a strong risk factor, with odds ratios of 3.715 for second-lactation cows and 23.047 for third-or-later lactation cows compared with first-lactation cows [6]. Older cows are dramatically more susceptible, which is why transition management focuses on mature cows. Calcium status interacts with inflammation. In multiparous Holstein cows, oral calcium supplementation at 2 and 3 days in milk increased milk yield in cows with high haptoglobin concentrations at 2 days in milk, showing that the response depends on the cow's inflammatory state [11]. ### Reduced Fertility Infertility is the single largest reason Holstein cows are culled. In South African Holstein and Jersey herds, infertility accounted for 37.94 ± 0.48% of Holstein culls, the leading cause [2]. In southern Brazil, reproductive disorders accounted for 34.0% of culls in predominantly Holstein herds [12]. In a study of Holstein cows culled after their second to sixth parities, cows culled for reproductive problems had the greatest longevity, while cows culled for endemic diseases had the shortest [7]. Cows culled for reproductive problems also required a higher number of services per conception [7]. Reproductive performance can be ranked using phenotypic indices. In a large multistate study of 11,733 Holstein cows across 16 US farms, two reproductive indices were developed to represent the predicted probability that a cow would become pregnant at first artificial insemination postpartum, and these indices were tested against fertility outcomes, milk yield, and survival [16]. This kind of index helps farms identify subfertile cows earlier rather than waiting for repeated failed breedings. Transition health drives reproductive success. In a study of Holstein cows monitored from three weeks before calving through early lactation, cows diagnosed with any disease in the first 60 days in milk had lower odds of early ovulation, with odds of early ovulation by median postpartum day 33 being 1.92 times greater in healthy cows than diseased cows [4]. Disease in this study included metritis, digestive disorders, ketosis, hypocalcemia, calving problems, mastitis, and lameness, and 42.5% of cows were diagnosed with at least one condition [4]. ### Heat Stress Holsteins are poorly adapted to heat. In a study comparing Holstein, Montbéliard, and Brown Swiss cows under summer conditions with temperature-humidity index levels from 70.11 to 80.60, Holstein cows showed the highest stress indicators, including rectal temperature, respiration rate, heart rate, and panting score [5]. Heat stress hits production hard. Holstein cows had the highest average daily milk yield in that study at 25.97 ± 5 L per day, but production declined significantly from week 1 to week 3 by 11.58%, while Brown Swiss cows maintained stable output with a decrease of only 2.79% [5]. Holstein milk composition also suffered, with reduced fat and protein levels under stress, while Brown Swiss composition remained more stable [5]. At the herd level, increased temperature-humidity index and specific disease incidences were identified as drivers of herd-level milk losses in a study of 45,148 Holstein cows across five large commercial farms [17]. ### Recessive Genetic Conditions and Haplotypes Holstein breeding programs manage recessive genetic conditions and haplotypes, which are chromosomal regions carrying lethal or deleterious variants. These conditions are tracked through breed association records and genomic testing, and carriers can be bred to non-carriers to avoid affected offspring. Well-known examples include bovine leukocyte adhesion deficiency (BLAD), complex vertebral malformation (CVM), brachyspina, cholesterol deficiency (HCD), and the fertility haplotypes HH1 through HH6. Genetic selection for production also has consequences for health: genetic correlations between disease traits and milk yield in registered Holstein cows were mostly positive, ranging from 0.02 to 0.44, meaning higher yield is genetically associated with more disease for most conditions studied [15]. ## Longevity and Culling Holstein cows have short productive lives relative to their potential lifespan. In a dataset of 1,534,875 Holstein cows from 1,864 South African herds recorded between 2000 and 2019, Holstein cows had a mean productive life of 739.33 ± 434.31 days and 2.37 ± 1.08 lactations [2]. Jersey cows in the same dataset averaged 696.81 ± 415.44 days and 2.47 ± 1.13 lactations [2]. The leading culling reasons for Holsteins were infertility (37.94 ± 0.48%), mastitis (18.15 ± 0.38%), and low milk yield (11.76 ± 0.32%) [2]. Culling patterns vary by region and system. In southern Brazil, the average annual culling rate in predominantly Holstein herds was 24.2%, with reproductive disorders (34.0%), mastitis and high somatic cell count (20.4%), and feet and leg problems (17.9%) as the main causes, and involuntary causes representing 89.5% of all culling [12]. Larger herds had higher culling rates than smaller ones (26.2% vs. 22.8%), and higher-producing herds had higher culling rates than lower-producing ones (25.7% vs. 22.0%) [12]. Cows with five or more calvings were culled more often than those in earlier lactations, and culling was lowest in spring and highest during early lactation (0 to 60 days) and late lactation (more than 420 days) [12]. Longevity has a genetic component, and its heritability differs by culling reason [18]. Early-life factors shape how long a cow stays in the herd. In a Danish study of cows culled in 2019 to 2023, cows born as singletons had longer productive lives than twins, and cows born as large calves had longer productive lives than medium or small calves [8]. Twin-born cows had two to three months shorter productive lives than singletons, and lifetime milk yield was 1,500 to 3,500 kg lower in cows born as twins [8]. ## Care Considerations for Small Farms Small farms face the same Holstein biology as large dairies, but with fewer resources for disease surveillance and labor. A few principles follow directly from the sources. Feed needs scale with milk yield. A Holstein producing high volumes needs a ration balanced for energy, protein, and minerals, and transition cows need particular attention because calcium and energy status drive both production and disease risk [11][6]. Work with a veterinarian or nutritionist to build rations rather than extrapolating from another farm. Space and handling must match the breed's size. Holstein cows are large, and facilities designed for smaller breeds may cause injury, reduce lying time, and worsen lameness. Adequate stall dimensions, non-slip flooring, and shade are baseline requirements, and heat abatement is essential because Holsteins show the highest stress indicators among breeds compared under heat load [5]. Milking frequency affects both production and behavior. Milking frequency had a significant association with behavior in a study of Holstein dairy cattle [9]. More frequent milking can raise yield, but it also increases labor and udder stress, so the right schedule depends on the farm's system and the cow's stage of lactation. Disease monitoring should be systematic. Daily milk yield records can be used to build mastitis detection frameworks, since yield declines before and around diagnosis [13]. Activity monitors can track rumination, lying, standing, and steps, but interpretation must account for physiological stage, parity, and milking frequency [9]. Early detection of ketosis and lameness matters because milk yield declines for two to four weeks before clinical diagnosis in some conditions [14]. Culling decisions should be made with data. Infertility, mastitis, and low yield are the leading reasons Holsteins leave the herd [2]. Cows that fail to conceive after repeated services, cows with recurring mastitis, and cows with chronic lameness are the usual candidates, and early-life factors such as twinning and calf size influence how long a replacement will last [8]. ## Limitations and When to Contact a Veterinarian Individual cows vary, and no article can replace an examination by a veterinarian who knows the animal, the herd, and the farm's history. Contact a veterinarian promptly if a cow shows any of the following: a sudden drop in milk yield that persists for more than a day or two, a hot or swollen quarter or abnormal milk, reluctance to rise or visible lameness, off-feed behavior or a marked drop in rumination in early lactation, signs of calving difficulty or retained fetal membranes, or a body temperature that is outside the normal range for the herd. For herd-level problems, such as a cluster of mastitis cases, an increase in lameness, or a rise in culling for infertility, involve a veterinarian early. Herd investigations are more effective when started before the problem becomes chronic. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is a Holstein cow? A Holstein cow is a large dairy breed developed from black-and-white cattle of the Netherlands, especially the provinces of North Holland and Friesland. It is the highest-producing dairy breed in the world and the dominant breed in US and global dairy herds [1]. ### How much milk does a Holstein cow produce per year? Holsteins produce more milk than Jersey and other common dairy breeds [1]. US Holsteins enrolled in official production testing averaged about 28,000 pounds (12,700 kg) of milk per cow in 2021, according to Holstein Association USA. Herd-level benchmarks in one German study used 7,500 kg per cow per year as the threshold separating intensive from extensive management [6]. Actual yield depends on management, nutrition, and parity. ### What is the difference between a Holstein and a Friesian? The Friesian is the older, smaller, dual-purpose type from Europe and the British Isles. The Holstein is the larger, higher-yielding, dairy-specialized type that came to dominate commercial dairying worldwide. The full breed name Holstein-Friesian reflects the shared origin in Friesland. ### What is a red and white Holstein? A red-and-white Holstein is the same breed as the black-and-white Holstein, with a recessive genetic variant that replaces black pigment with red. Red-and-white Holsteins have the same production characteristics and are registered within Holstein breed associations. ### Why do Holstein cows have so many health problems? Holsteins are selected for high milk yield, and genetic correlations between disease traits and milk yield are mostly positive, ranging from 0.02 to 0.44 in one study of registered cows [15]. High production also increases metabolic and immune strain during the transition period [11]. ### What is the most common disease in Holstein dairy cattle? Subclinical mastitis is the most common condition recorded in one large German herd study, at 61.9% of lactations, followed by lameness at 15.4% and clinical mastitis at 15.3% [6]. ### How long do Holstein cows live? Productive life is short. In a large South African dataset, Holstein cows averaged 739.33 ± 434.31 days of productive life and 2.37 ± 1.08 lactations [2]. Longevity depends on fertility, udder health, and lameness. ### Are Holsteins good for small farms? Holsteins can work on small farms, but their size, feed requirements, and health risks demand good facilities and consistent management. Smaller farms should focus on heat abatement, lameness prevention, and systematic disease monitoring because Holsteins are less heat tolerant and more prone to lameness than some other breeds [5][6]. ## Related Articles - [Lighting Design for Dairy Barns to Improve Cow Welfare and Milk Production](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/lighting-design-dairy-barns-improve-welfare-production) - [Dairy Cow Milk Fever Risk Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-milk-fever-risk-management) - [Dairy Cow Ration Adjustments for Milk Protein Percent](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-ration-adjustments-milk-protein) - [Dairy Cow Ration Adjustments for Milk Fat Depression](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-ration-adjustments-milk-fat-depression) - [Dairy Cow Milk Fever Prevention: Nutritional Approaches](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-milk-fever-prevention-nutrition) - [Dairy Cow Population Trends: Herd Size and Regional Shifts](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-population-trends-herd-size-and-regional-shifts) - [Dairy Cow Genetics: Selection for Production, Health, and Longevity](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-genetics-selection-for-production-health-and-longevity) - [Jersey Cows: Milk, Size, Temperament and Care](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/food-animal-medicine/jersey-cow-breed-guide) - [How Much Milk Does a Cow Produce a Day?](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/food-animal-medicine/how-much-milk-does-a-cow-produce) - [Ayrshire Cows: Breed Traits, Milk and Hardiness](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/food-animal-medicine/ayrshire-cow-breed-guide) ## Sources 1. 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