# Small Mammal Respiratory Physiology

## Quick Answer

- Small mammals such as rabbits, guinea pigs, chinchillas, and rats are obligate nasal breathers, meaning they cannot switch to mouth breathing when their nasal passages are obstructed.
- Clinicians must maintain patent nasal airways during handling, restraint, and anesthesia because nasal obstruction can cause rapid respiratory distress and death.
- Respiratory disease in small mammals often presents with subtle signs, and diagnostic imaging and clinical examination require species-specific knowledge to avoid iatrogenic injury.

## At a Glance

| Species | Respiratory Feature | Clinical Implication |
| --- | --- | --- |
| Rabbits | Obligate nasal breathing, narrow nasal passages, large tongue | Nasal obstruction causes severe distress, avoid mouth breathing assumptions during restraint |
| Guinea pigs | Obligate nasal breathing, small thoracic cavity, fragile trachea | Stress and improper handling can precipitate respiratory failure, minimize restraint time |
| Rats and mice | Obligate nasal breathing, high respiratory rate, sensitive respiratory mucosa | Environmental irritants and improper anesthesia delivery can cause rapid decompensation |

## Anatomical Foundations of Obligate Nasal Breathing

The respiratory system of small mammals is anatomically adapted for nasal breathing, a feature that distinguishes them from many larger domestic species. The nasal passages in rabbits, guinea pigs, rats, and mice are narrow and convoluted, with turbinate bones that warm, humidify, and filter inspired air. The epiglottis in these species is positioned high in the nasopharynx, which allows the animal to breathe and swallow simultaneously without aspirating food or water. This anatomical arrangement is efficient for survival in the wild, but it creates a clinical vulnerability when the nasal passages become obstructed or when the animal is placed in a position that compromises airflow.

The hard palate in rabbits is nearly complete, and the soft palate is elongated, which further reinforces the reliance on nasal breathing. In guinea pigs, the epiglottis is also positioned high, and the larynx is relatively small, making intubation difficult and increasing the risk of airway trauma. Rats and mice have a similar anatomical arrangement, with a narrow nasopharynx and a high respiratory rate that can exceed 100 breaths per minute. These species cannot switch to mouth breathing, so any obstruction of the nasal passages, whether from mucus, inflammation, or foreign material, can quickly lead to hypoxia and respiratory failure.

The clinical implication of obligate nasal breathing is that handling, restraint, and anesthesia protocols must be designed to preserve nasal airflow. For example, placing a rabbit in dorsal recumbency without proper head positioning can cause the tongue to fall back and obstruct the nasopharynx. Similarly, applying a face mask that covers the nostrils can cause panic and respiratory distress. Clinicians must be aware of these anatomical constraints and adjust their techniques accordingly.

## Respiratory Rate and Tidal Volume Variations

Small mammals have a high metabolic rate, which drives a high respiratory rate and a relatively small tidal volume. The respiratory rate varies by species, with rabbits typically breathing at 30 to 60 breaths per minute, guinea pigs at 40 to 100 breaths per minute, and rats and mice at 70 to 150 breaths per minute. These rates are significantly higher than those of larger domestic animals, and they reflect the high oxygen demand of small mammals. The tidal volume, the amount of air moved in and out of the lungs with each breath, is correspondingly small, and the lungs are relatively small in proportion to the body size.

The high respiratory rate and small tidal volume have several clinical implications. First, the respiratory system is less tolerant of dead space, which is the volume of air that does not participate in gas exchange. Anesthesia circuits and breathing tubes that are too large can increase dead space and cause carbon dioxide retention. Second, the high respiratory rate means that small mammals can become dehydrated quickly through the respiratory tract, especially if they are panting or breathing rapidly. Third, the small tidal volume makes it difficult to assess respiratory function by observing chest movements alone, and clinicians should use more sensitive monitoring methods, such as capnography or pulse oximetry, when available.

The respiratory pattern of small mammals is also affected by stress and pain. A frightened rabbit or guinea pig may hold its breath or breathe rapidly and shallowly, which can complicate clinical assessment. Handling should be calm and deliberate, and the animal should be given time to acclimate to the examination room. The use of towels or other coverings can help reduce stress, but care must be taken to avoid covering the nostrils.

## The Nasal Cavity and Its Role in Thermoregulation

The nasal cavity of small mammals is also a passage for air but also a site for thermoregulation. The turbinate bones are covered with a highly vascularized mucosa that can warm or cool the air as it passes through. In a cold environment, the nasal mucosa warms the air before it reaches the lungs, which helps to maintain the animal's core body temperature. In a hot environment, the nasal mucosa can cool the air through evaporation, which helps to dissipate heat. This function is particularly important for small mammals because they have a high surface area to volume ratio, which makes them prone to heat loss and heat gain.

The nasal mucosa also humidifies the air, which is essential for the function of the lungs. The lungs require a certain level of humidity to prevent the drying of the alveolar surfaces, and the nasal cavity provides this humidity. If the nasal passages are obstructed, the animal may be forced to breathe through its mouth, which can dry out the lungs and lead to respiratory infection. This is another reason why nasal obstruction is a medical emergency in small mammals.

The vascularity of the nasal mucosa also means that the nose is a site of potential hemorrhage. Trauma to the nose, such as from a fall or a bite, can cause significant bleeding, which can further obstruct the airway. Clinicians should be prepared to manage nasal hemorrhage and should avoid using nasal cannulas or other devices that could damage the mucosa.

## The Larynx and Trachea in Small Mammals

The larynx of small mammals is small and delicate, and the trachea is narrow and collapsible. In rabbits, the trachea is relatively long and narrow, and the larynx is positioned at a slight angle, which makes intubation difficult. The trachea of guinea pigs is particularly sensitive, and the tracheal rings are incomplete, which means the trachea can collapse if it is compressed. The trachea of rats and mice is also narrow, and the tracheal rings are delicate.

The small size of the larynx and trachea has several clinical implications. First, intubation is technically challenging and requires specialized equipment, such as a small-diameter endotracheal tube and a laryngoscope with a small blade. The tube should be inserted gently, and the cuff should be inflated carefully to avoid damaging the tracheal mucosa. Second, the trachea is easily obstructed by mucus, blood, or foreign material, and the animal should be positioned with the head and neck extended to maintain a patent airway. Third, the trachea is susceptible to trauma from overzealous suctioning or from the use of a tube that is too large.

The trachea of small mammals is also sensitive to irritation, and the inhalation of dust, ammonia, or other irritants can cause tracheitis and bronchitis. The animal should be housed in a clean, well-ventilated environment, and the bedding should be dust-free. The use of a nebulizer can help to deliver medication to the lower airways, but the nebulizer should be used with caution to avoid the overhydration of the airways.

## The Lungs and Gas Exchange

The lungs of small mammals are relatively small and are divided into lobes, but the structure of the lungs varies across species. The lungs of rabbits are divided into the cranial, middle, caudal, and accessory lobes, and the right lung is larger than the left. The lungs of guinea pigs are also divided into lobes, but the right lung has an additional lobe. The lungs of rats and mice are similar in structure, but the lungs are relatively larger in proportion to the body size.

The alveoli of small mammals are small and numerous, which provides a large surface area for gas exchange. The alveolar membrane is thin, which allows for the efficient diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the small size of the alveoli also means that the lungs are vulnerable to the accumulation of fluid, which can impair gas exchange. The lungs of small mammals are also prone to the development of pneumonia, which can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi.

The gas exchange in the lungs is dependent on the ventilation and the perfusion of the lungs. The ventilation is the movement of air in and out of the lungs, and the perfusion is the blood flow through the lungs. The ventilation and perfusion must be matched for the efficient gas exchange, and any condition that disrupts this matching can cause hypoxia. For example, a lung lobe that is consolidated with pneumonia is not ventilated, but it is still perfused, which can cause a shunt and the hypoxia.

The clinical assessment of the respiratory function in small mammals is challenging because the chest is small and the respiratory rate is high. The clinician should observe the animal from a distance to assess the respiratory rate and the pattern, and the animal should be handled gently to avoid the stress. The clinician should also listen to the lungs with a stethoscope, but the breath sounds are often quiet, and the clinician may need to use a pediatric stethoscope.

## The Diaphragm and the Chest Wall

The diaphragm is the primary muscle of respiration in small mammals, and the chest wall is relatively compliant. The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity, and it contracts and flattens during inspiration, which increases the volume of the thoracic cavity. The chest wall is made up of the ribs and the intercostal muscles, and the intercostal muscles contract during inspiration to lift the ribs and expand the chest.

The diaphragm is innervated by the phrenic nerve, which originates from the cervical spinal cord. The phrenic nerve is vulnerable to injury during the surgery of the neck or the chest, and the injury can cause the paralysis of the diaphragm. The chest wall is also vulnerable to the injury, and the rib fractures can cause the pain and the respiratory distress.

The small mammals have a relatively large diaphragm in relation to the size of the chest, and the diaphragm is the primary driver of the ventilation. The chest wall is less compliant than the diaphragm, and the chest wall is less important for the ventilation. The clinical implication is that the respiratory distress in small mammals is often characterized by the abdominal effort, and the clinician should observe the abdominal movement to assess the respiratory function.

The chest wall of small mammals is also vulnerable to the compression, and the compression can cause the respiratory distress. The animal should be handled with the support of the chest, and the animal should not be held too tightly. The animal should also be positioned in a way that allows the chest to expand freely, and the animal should not be placed in a position that restricts the chest.

## Anesthesia and Respiratory Management

Anesthesia in small mammals requires careful attention to the respiratory system, because the respiratory depression is a common complication. The anesthetic agents can cause the respiratory depression, and the respiratory rate and the depth of the breathing should be monitored closely. The animal should be preoxygenated before the induction of anesthesia, and the animal should be intubated if the procedure is long or if the animal is at risk of the respiratory depression.

The anesthesia machine should be set up with the appropriate settings for the small mammal, and the breathing circuit should be a non-rebreathing circuit, such as a Bain circuit or a Jackson-Rees circuit. The non-rebreathing circuit has a low dead space, and the circuit allows the fresh gas to flow to the animal. The oxygen flow rate should be set at a rate that is appropriate for the size of the animal, and the flow rate should be adjusted based on the respiratory rate and the tidal volume.

The animal should be monitored during the anesthesia, and the monitoring should include the respiratory rate, the heart rate, the oxygen saturation, and the end-tidal carbon dioxide. The pulse oximeter can be placed on the tongue, the ear, or the foot, and the capnograph can be attached to the endotracheal tube. The monitoring should be continuous, and the anesthetist should be prepared to intervene if the respiratory function is compromised.

The recovery from the anesthesia is also a critical period, and the animal should be monitored until it is fully conscious. The animal should be placed in a warm, quiet environment, and the animal should be observed for the signs of the respiratory distress. The animal should be offered food and water once it is fully conscious, and the animal should be monitored for the signs of the aspiration.

## Handling and Restraint Techniques

The handling and restraint of small mammals require a gentle and deliberate approach, because the improper handling can cause the respiratory distress. The animal should be approached slowly and calmly, and the animal should be given the time to acclimate to the handler. The animal should be picked up with the support of the chest and the hindquarters, and the animal should not be held by the ears, the tail, or the limbs.

The rabbit should be held with the one hand under the chest and the other hand under the hindquarters, and the rabbit should be held close to the body of the handler. The rabbit should not be held by the ears, and the rabbit should not be placed on its back, because the rabbit can struggle and injure its spine. The guinea pig should be held with the one hand under the chest and the other hand under the hindquarters, and the guinea pig should be held close to the body of the handler. The guinea pig should not be held by the legs, and the guinea pig should not be squeezed.

The rat and the mouse should be held by the base of the tail, and the animal should be placed on a surface that provides a grip. The animal should be picked up by the scruff of the neck, and the animal should be held with the one hand. The animal should not be held by the tip of the tail, and the animal should not be held by the tail for a long period of time.

The handling and restraint should be practiced, and the handler should be trained in the proper techniques. The handler should also be aware of the signs of the respiratory distress, and the handler should release the animal if the animal is in distress.

## Common Respiratory Diseases in Small Mammals

The respiratory diseases in small mammals are common, and the diseases can be caused by the bacteria, the viruses, the fungi, or the parasites. The clinical signs of the respiratory disease include the nasal discharge, the sneezing, the coughing, the dyspnea, and the lethargy. The animal may also have a reduced appetite, and the animal may be reluctant to move.

The rabbits are susceptible to the pasteurellosis, which is caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida. The pasteurellosis can cause the rhinitis, the pneumonia, and the abscesses, and the disease is often chronic. The guinea pigs are susceptible to the pneumonia, which is caused by the bacterium *Streptococcus pneumoniae* or the bacterium *Bordetella bronchiseptica*. The pneumonia can be acute, and the animal may die suddenly. The rats are susceptible to the mycoplasmosis, which is caused by the bacterium *Mycoplasma pulmonis*. The mycoplasmosis can cause the rhinitis, the pneumonia, and the otitis media.

The viral diseases of the small mammals include the viral hemorrhagic disease of the rabbits, which is caused by the calicivirus. The viral hemorrhagic disease is highly contagious, and the disease can cause the sudden death. The viral diseases of the guinea pigs include the cytomegalovirus, which can cause the respiratory disease. The viral diseases of the rats include the sialodacryoadenitis, which is caused by the coronavirus.

The fungal diseases of the small mammals include the ringworm, which is caused by the fungus *Trichophyton mentagrophytes*. The ringworm can cause the skin lesions, and the lesions can be the alopecia and the scaling. The fungal diseases of the lungs are less common, but the fungus *Pneumocystis carinii* can cause the pneumonia in the immunocompromised animals.

The parasitic diseases of the small mammals include the lungworm, which is caused by the nematode *Angiostrongylus cantonensis*. The lungworm can cause the pneumonia, and the animal can have the respiratory distress. The parasitic diseases of the nasal cavity include the nasal mite, which is caused by the mite *Pneumonyssus caninum*.

## Diagnostic Approaches for Respiratory Disease

The diagnosis of the respiratory disease in small mammals requires a thorough clinical examination and the diagnostic testing. The clinical examination should include the observation of the respiratory rate and the pattern, the auscultation of the chest, and the palpation of the trachea. The animal should be observed from a distance, and the animal should be handled gently to avoid the stress.

The diagnostic tests for the respiratory disease include the complete blood count, the serum biochemistry, and the radiography. The radiography of the chest can be used to assess the lungs and the heart, and the radiography can be used to detect the pneumonia, the lung masses, and the heart disease. The radiography should be performed with the animal in the sternal recumbency, and the radiography should be performed with the animal in the lateral recumbency.

The diagnostic tests also include the culture and the sensitivity of the respiratory secretions, and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of the respiratory secretions. The culture and the sensitivity can be used to identify the bacteria and the determine the antibiotic sensitivity. The PCR can be used to identify the viruses and the bacteria, and the PCR is a sensitive test.

The diagnostic tests also include the endoscopy of the respiratory tract, and the bronchoscopy can be used to visualize the trachea and the bronchi. The bronchoscopy can be used to collect the samples of the respiratory secretions, and the bronchoscopy can be used to remove the foreign material. The endoscopy should be performed with the animal under the anesthesia, and the endoscopy should be performed with the animal in the sternal recumbency.

The diagnostic tests also include the computed tomography (CT) of the chest, and the CT can be used to assess the lungs and the heart in detail. The CT is a sensitive test, and the CT can be used to detect the small lesions. The CT should be performed with the animal under the anesthesia, and the CT should be performed with the animal in the sternal recumbency.

## Treatment and Management of Respiratory Disease

The treatment of the respiratory disease in small mammals depends on the cause of the disease, and the treatment should be directed at the underlying cause. The treatment may include the antibiotics, the anti-inflammatory drugs, the bronchodilators, and the supportive care. The antibiotics should be selected based on the culture and the sensitivity, and the antibiotics should be given for the appropriate duration.

The supportive care for the respiratory disease includes the oxygen therapy, the fluid therapy, and the nutritional support. The oxygen therapy can be provided with the oxygen cage, and the oxygen cage should be set at a concentration of 30 to 50 percent. The fluid therapy should be given to maintain the hydration, and the fluid therapy should be given with the subcutaneous or the intravenous route. The nutritional support should be given to maintain the body condition, and the nutritional support should be given with the syringe feeding or the feeding tube.

The management of the respiratory disease also includes the environmental management, and the animal should be housed in a clean, well-ventilated environment. The bedding should be dust-free, and the bedding should be changed frequently. The animal should be kept in a warm, quiet environment, and the animal should be kept away from the drafts.

The treatment of the respiratory disease should be monitored, and the animal should be re-examined at the regular intervals. The animal should be re-examined at the end of the treatment, and the animal should be re-examined if the clinical signs persist. The animal should be re-examined if the clinical signs worsen.

## Preventive Care and Husbandry

The prevention of the respiratory disease in small mammals is based on the good husbandry and the preventive care. The animal should be housed in a clean, well-ventilated environment, and the bedding should be dust-free. The animal should be fed a balanced diet, and the animal should have access to the fresh water. The animal should be handled gently, and the animal should be given the opportunity to exercise.

The preventive care includes the regular veterinary examination, and the veterinary examination should include the assessment of the respiratory system. The veterinary examination should be performed at least once a year, and the veterinary examination should be performed more frequently for the older animals. The veterinary examination should include the vaccination, and the vaccination should be given for the diseases that are preventable.

The preventive care also includes the parasite control, and the animal should be treated for the parasites. The animal should be treated for the internal parasites, and the animal should be treated for the external parasites. The animal should be treated for the parasites at the regular intervals, and the animal should be treated for the parasites at the time of the veterinary examination.

The preventive care also includes the dental care, and the animal should have the teeth checked regularly. The dental disease can cause the respiratory disease, and the dental disease can cause the nasal discharge. The animal should have the teeth trimmed if the teeth are overgrown, and the animal should have the teeth checked at the veterinary examination.

## Welfare and Safety Considerations

The welfare of the small mammals is an important consideration, and the welfare should be considered in the handling, the housing, and the treatment of the animal. The animal should be handled gently, and the animal should be treated with the respect. The animal should be housed in an environment that meets the needs of the animal, and the animal should have the access to the food, the water, and the shelter.

The safety of the handler is also an important consideration, and the handler should be aware of the risks of the handling. The animal can bite, and the animal can scratch. The handler should wear the gloves, and the handler should be trained in the proper handling techniques.

The safety of the animal is also an important consideration, and the animal should be protected from the injury. The animal should be handled with the care, and the animal should not be dropped. The animal should be kept in a secure environment, and the animal should not be able to escape.

The welfare of the animal should be assessed regularly, and the animal should be monitored for the signs of the pain, the distress, and the disease. The animal should be treated for the pain, and the animal should be treated for the disease. The animal should be euthanized if the animal is in the pain, and the animal should be euthanized if the animal is not the quality of life.

## Records and Measurements

The records of the respiratory function are important for the monitoring of the animal, and the records should be kept for the animal. The records should include the respiratory rate, the respiratory pattern, and the respiratory effort. The records should also include the oxygen saturation, the end-tidal carbon dioxide, and the body weight.

The records should be kept for the animal, and the records should be kept for the treatment. The records should include the diagnosis, the treatment, and the response to the treatment. The records should be kept for the animal, and the records should be kept for the veterinary examination.

The records should be reviewed regularly, and the records should be used to assess the progress of the animal. The records should be used to assess the response to the treatment, and the records should be used to adjust the treatment. The records should be used to assess the welfare of the animal, and the records should be used to make the decisions about the animal.

## Common Failure Patterns

The common failure patterns in the management of the respiratory disease in small mammals include the failure to recognize the respiratory distress, the failure to provide the oxygen, and the failure to treat the underlying cause. The failure to recognize the respiratory distress can lead to the death of the animal, and the failure to provide the oxygen can lead to the hypoxia. The failure to treat the underlying cause can lead to the chronic disease.

The common failure patterns also include the failure to handle the animal properly, and the failure to handle the animal properly can cause the respiratory distress. The failure to handle the animal properly can cause the injury, and the failure to handle the animal properly can cause the stress. The failure to handle the animal properly can cause the animal to bite, and the failure to handle the animal properly can cause the animal to escape.

The common failure patterns also include the failure to provide the appropriate environment, and the failure to provide the appropriate environment can cause the respiratory disease. The failure to provide the appropriate environment can cause the animal to be exposed to the dust, the ammonia, and the other irritants. The failure to provide the appropriate environment can cause the animal to be exposed to the temperature extremes, and the failure to provide the appropriate environment can cause the animal to be exposed to the drafts.

The common failure patterns also include the failure to provide the appropriate nutrition, and the failure to provide the appropriate nutrition can cause the respiratory disease. The failure to provide the appropriate nutrition can cause the animal to be malnourished, and the failure to provide the appropriate nutrition can cause the animal to be immunocompromised. The failure to provide the appropriate nutrition can cause the animal to be dehydrated, and the failure to provide the appropriate nutrition can cause the animal to be constipated.

## Professional Escalation Criteria

The professional escalation criteria for the respiratory disease in small mammals include the signs of the respiratory distress, the signs of the hypoxia, and the signs of the respiratory failure. The signs of the respiratory distress include the dyspnea, the tachypnea, and the open-mouth breathing. The signs of the hypoxia include the cyanosis, the lethargy, and the collapse. The signs of the respiratory failure include the apnea, the bradycardia, and the cardiac arrest.

The professional escalation criteria also include the signs of the severe disease, and the signs of the severe disease include the fever, the anorexia, and the weight loss. The signs of the severe disease include the nasal discharge, the ocular discharge, and the sneezing. The signs of the severe disease include the coughing, the wheezing, and the crackles.

The professional escalation criteria also include the signs of the complications, and the signs of the complications include the signs of the pneumonia, the signs of the abscess, and the signs of the sepsis. The signs of the complications include the signs of the dehydration, the signs of the electrolyte imbalance, and the signs of the organ failure.

The professional escalation criteria also include the signs of the poor response to the treatment, and the signs of the poor response to the treatment include the lack of the improvement, the worsening of the signs, and the recurrence of the signs. The signs of the poor response to the treatment include the lack of the appetite, the lack of the energy, and the lack of the weight gain.

## Frequently Asked Questions

### Why are small mammals obligate nasal breathers?

Small mammals are obligate nasal breathers because their epiglottis is positioned over the nasopharynx, which allows them to swallow and breathe at the same time. This anatomical arrangement prevents the aspiration of food and water, but it also means that the animal cannot breathe through the mouth if the nasal passages are obstructed.

### What are the signs of respiratory distress in a small mammal?

The signs of respiratory distress in a small mammal include an increased respiratory rate, an increased respiratory effort, and the open-mouth breathing. The animal may also have a nasal discharge, a discharge from the eyes, and a reduced appetite. The animal may be lethargic, and the animal may be reluctant to move.

### How should a small mammal be handled to avoid respiratory distress?

A small mammal should be handled gently and deliberately, with the support of the chest and the hindquarters. The animal should not be held by the ears, the tail, or the limbs, and the animal should not be squeezed. The animal should be given the time to acclimate to the handler, and the animal should be released if the animal is in distress.

### What is the role of the nasal cavity in the respiratory system of a small mammal?

The nasal cavity of a small mammal warms, humidifies, and filters the air before it reaches the lungs. The nasal cavity also plays a role in the thermoregulation, and the nasal cavity can cool the blood in a hot environment. The nasal cavity is a site of the bleeding, and the nasal cavity can be obstructed by the mucus, the blood, or the foreign material.

### What are the common respiratory diseases in small mammals?

The common respiratory diseases in small mammals include the pasteurellosis in rabbits, the pneumonia in guinea pigs, and the mycoplasmosis in rats. The diseases can be caused by the bacteria, the viruses, the fungi, or the parasites. The clinical signs include the respiratory discharge, the dyspnea, and the lethargy.

### How is the respiratory disease diagnosed in a small mammal?

The respiratory disease in a small mammal is diagnosed with a thorough clinical examination, the radiography of the chest, and the culture of the respiratory secretions. The diagnostic tests may also include the PCR of the respiratory secretions, the endoscopy of the respiratory tract, and the CT of the chest.

### What is the treatment for the respiratory disease in a small mammal?

The treatment for the respiratory disease in a small mammal depends on the cause of the disease, and the treatment may include the antibiotics, the anti-inflammatory drugs, the bronchodilators, and the supportive care. The supportive care includes the oxygen therapy, the fluid therapy, and the nutritional support.

### When should a veterinarian be consulted for a small mammal with a respiratory problem?

A veterinarian should be consulted for a small mammal with a respiratory problem if the animal has the signs of the respiratory distress, the signs of the hypoxia, or the signs of the respiratory failure. The veterinarian should also be consulted if the animal has the signs of the severe disease, the signs of the complications, or the signs of the poor response to the treatment.

## Using the Evidence

| Source | Best use in this topic | Important limitation |
|---|---|---|
| [Pet Care](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/pet-owners) | official guidance | Check the linked page for current local requirements |
| [AAHA Guidelines](https://www.aaha.org/resources) | official guidance | Check the linked page for current local requirements |
| [Global Guidelines](https://wsava.org/global-guidelines) | official guidance | Check the linked page for current local requirements |

## Related Veterinary Guides

- [Pet Rat Respiratory Disease: Mycoplasma and Other Pathogens](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/small-mammal-care/pet-rat-respiratory-disease-mycoplasma-pathogens)
- [Dental Health in Small Mammals](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/small-mammal-care/small-mammal-dental-health)
- [Small Mammal Emergency Signs](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/small-mammal-care/small-mammal-emergency-signs)
- [Small Mammal Safe Bedding](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/small-mammal-care/small-mammal-safe-bedding)
- [Dental Disease in Pet Rabbits](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/small-mammal-care/rabbit-dental-disease)

## References and Further Reading

- [Pet Care](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/pet-owners). American Veterinary Medical Association.
- [AAHA Guidelines](https://www.aaha.org/resources). American Animal Hospital Association.
- [Global Guidelines](https://wsava.org/global-guidelines). World Small Animal Veterinary Association.
- [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/). Merck Veterinary Manual.
- [Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine](https://www.vet.cornell.edu/). Cornell University.
- [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/animal-health-and-welfare). World Organisation for Animal Health.
- [Structural and functional development in airways throughout childhood: Children are not small adults.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33179415). Pediatric pulmonology, 2021.
- [Physiological changes in respiratory function associated with ageing.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10836348). The European respiratory journal, 1999.
- [Airway physiology.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1523780). The Veterinary clinics of North America. Small animal practice, 1992.
- [Respiratory physiology during early life.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10546482). Monaldi archives for chest disease = Archivio Monaldi per le malattie del torace, 1999.
- [Respiratory physiology of COVID-19-induced respiratory failure compared to ARDS of other etiologies.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32859264). Critical care (London, England), 2020.

> This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. Contact a veterinarian for advice about an individual animal.