# Preventive Care Schedules for Pet Birds ## Quick Answer - Schedule wellness examinations for pet birds at least annually, with twice-yearly visits recommended for senior birds or those with chronic conditions. - Include physical examination, fecal testing, and species-appropriate blood work as core diagnostic components of each wellness visit. - Preventive care schedules must be individualized based on species, age, lifestyle, and environmental risk factors instead of applied uniformly. ## At a Glance | Examination Component | Recommended Frequency | Primary Purpose | |---|---|---| | Physical examination | Annual minimum, twice yearly for senior or high-risk birds | Detect early signs of disease, assess body condition, evaluate feather and skin health | | Fecal examination | Every wellness visit, more frequent for newly acquired birds | Identify intestinal parasites and abnormal bacterial flora | | Blood work | Annual baseline, repeat when clinical signs appear | Establish reference values, screen for organ dysfunction, and monitor metabolic status | | Nutritional assessment | Every visit | Evaluate diet composition and identify deficiencies or excesses | | Environmental review | Every visit | Assess housing, lighting, temperature, and potential toxic exposures | ## Scope and Purpose of Avian Wellness Examinations Preventive care for pet birds requires a structured approach that differs substantially from routine care for dogs and cats. Birds often mask signs of illness until disease is advanced, making regular wellness examinations a critical component of responsible ownership. The American Veterinary Medical Association emphasizes that regular veterinary care is essential for maintaining pet health and preventing disease, and this principle applies with particular force to avian species where clinical signs of illness may be subtle or absent until the condition is severe. A wellness examination for a pet bird serves multiple purposes. It establishes a baseline of normal health parameters that can be referenced when the bird becomes ill. It provides an opportunity to assess husbandry practices, including diet, housing, and environmental conditions. It also allows the veterinarian to identify risk factors for disease and recommend preventive interventions before problems develop. The examination should be tailored to the individual bird, considering its species, age, lifestyle, and any preexisting conditions. The American Animal Hospital Association (AAHA) emphasizes that preventive care should be life-stage specific and individualized for companion animals. This principle applies to avian medicine, where the needs of a young budgerigar differ substantially from those of a geriatric Amazon parrot. A structured wellness schedule should account for these differences and adjust the frequency and content of examinations accordingly. ## Core Principles of Avian Preventive Care ### Species-Specific Considerations Birds are not a homogeneous group, and preventive care must account for the substantial differences among species. Psittacines, including parrots, cockatiels, and budgerigars, have different dietary requirements, lifespans, and disease susceptibilities than passerines, such as canaries and finches. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides authoritative background on avian diseases and husbandry, and it emphasizes that understanding species-specific biology is essential for appropriate veterinary care. For example, the dietary requirements of a lory, which feeds primarily on nectar and fruit, differ substantially from those of a seed-eating cockatiel. The metabolic rate, body temperature, and normal blood values also vary among species. A wellness program must account for these differences to be effective. ### Life-Stage Considerations The life stage of a bird influences the frequency and content of wellness examinations. Young birds require more frequent monitoring to ensure proper growth and development. Adult birds in their prime may need only annual examinations. Geriatric birds benefit from more frequent monitoring to detect age-related conditions such as arthritis, cataracts, and organ dysfunction. The World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) provides global guidelines for companion-animal care that emphasize the importance of life-stage-specific preventive medicine. These principles apply to avian patients, where the transition from juvenile to adult to senior status changes the risk profile for various diseases. ### Environmental and Husbandry Factors The environment in which a bird lives substantially influences its health. Poor husbandry is a common contributor to avian disease, and the wellness examination provides an opportunity to evaluate the bird's living conditions. Key environmental factors include cage size and placement, temperature and humidity, lighting, ventilation, and exposure to toxins. The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) emphasizes that animal health and welfare are closely linked, and that preventive measures should address both disease prevention and welfare promotion. For pet birds, this means evaluating also the physical health of the bird but also its behavioral welfare, including opportunities for exercise, social interaction, and mental stimulation. ## Core Components of the Avian Wellness Examination ### Physical Examination The physical examination is the foundation of the wellness visit. It should be performed systematically and include assessment of body condition, feather quality, skin, eyes, ears, nares, oral cavity, and the coelomic cavity. The veterinarian should also evaluate the bird's posture, gait, and respiratory effort. Body weight is a critical measurement that should be recorded at every visit. Weight changes are often the earliest indicator of disease in birds, and serial measurements provide valuable information about the bird's health trajectory. The veterinarian should also assess body condition score, which evaluates the amount of muscle and fat over the keel bone. The physical examination should include auscultation of the heart and lungs, although this can be challenging in small birds. The veterinarian should also examine the beak and nails for overgrowth or abnormalities, and the feet for signs of pododermatitis or other lesions. ### Fecal Testing Fecal examination is a routine component of the avian wellness visit. Fresh fecal samples should be examined for the presence of parasites, including Giardia, ascarids, and other intestinal parasites. The sample should also be evaluated for abnormal bacterial flora, which can indicate gastrointestinal disease. The frequency of fecal testing depends on the bird's risk factors. Newly acquired birds should have fecal testing performed at the initial examination and again after a quarantine period. Birds that live outdoors or have access to outdoor areas may need more frequent testing. Birds that are housed indoors with no exposure to other birds may need less frequent testing. ### Blood Work Blood work provides valuable information about the bird's internal health. A complete blood count can identify anemia, infection, and inflammation. A biochemistry panel evaluates organ function, including the liver, kidneys, and pancreas. Blood work is particularly important for establishing baseline values that can be compared with future samples. The frequency of blood work depends on the bird's age, health status, and species. Annual blood work is appropriate for most adult birds. Geriatric birds or birds with chronic conditions may benefit from more frequent monitoring. Blood work is also important for birds that are being considered for breeding, as it can identify conditions that might affect reproductive success. ### Nutritional Assessment Diet is a major determinant of avian health, and the wellness examination should include a thorough nutritional assessment. The veterinarian should review the bird's diet, including the types of foods offered, the amounts consumed, and any supplements. The assessment should also consider the bird's feeding behavior and any changes in appetite. Many pet birds are fed diets that are deficient in essential nutrients or excessive in others. Seed-based diets are often deficient in calcium, vitamin A, and other nutrients. Pelleted diets are more nutritionally complete but may not be accepted by all birds. The veterinarian should provide guidance on appropriate diet for the species and life stage of the bird. ### Environmental and Husbandry Review The wellness examination should include a review of the bird's environment and husbandry practices. This includes the cage size and placement, the type of bedding, the availability of perches and toys, and the bird's exposure to potential toxins. The veterinarian should also ask about the bird's behavior, including its activity level, vocalization, and interactions with other birds or people. The review should also address the bird's exposure to potential hazards, including toxic plants, fumes from nonstick cookware, and other household hazards. The veterinarian should provide guidance on how to minimize these risks. ## Recommended Examination Frequency ### Annual Wellness Examination An annual wellness examination is the minimum recommended frequency for a healthy adult bird. This examination should include a complete physical examination, fecal testing, and blood work. The veterinarian should also review the bird's diet, environment, and behavior. The annual examination provides an opportunity to identify early signs of disease and to update the bird's preventive care plan. It also allows the veterinarian to establish a baseline for future comparisons. The American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) emphasizes the importance of regular veterinary care for pets, and the annual examination is a cornerstone of this approach. ### Twice-Yearly Examinations Twice-yearly examinations are recommended for birds that are at higher risk for disease. This includes geriatric birds, birds with chronic conditions, and birds that are exposed to other birds or to the outdoors. Twice-yearly examinations may also be appropriate for birds that are used for breeding or that have a history of health problems. The twice-yearly examination should include the same components as the annual examination, with additional attention to the bird's specific risk factors. For example, a geriatric bird may need more frequent blood work to monitor organ function. A bird with a history of feather picking may need more frequent evaluation of its skin and feather condition. ### Examination Frequency for Newly Acquired Birds Newly acquired birds should have a wellness examination as soon as possible after acquisition. This examination should include a complete physical examination, fecal testing, and blood work. The bird should also be quarantined from other birds for a period of time to prevent the spread of disease. The initial examination provides a baseline for future comparisons and identifies any health problems that may have been present at the time of acquisition. The veterinarian should also provide guidance on the bird's diet, housing, and care. ## Implementing a Wellness Schedule in Practice ### Step 1: Establish a Baseline The first step in implementing a wellness schedule is to establish a baseline for the bird. This includes a complete physical examination, body weight, blood work, and fecal testing. The baseline should be recorded in the bird's medical record and used for future comparisons. The baseline should also include a thorough history, including the bird's age, species, sex, diet, environment, and any previous health problems. The history should be updated at each visit. ### Step 2: Develop an Individualized Plan Based on the baseline assessment, the veterinarian should develop an individualized wellness plan for the bird. The plan should address the bird's specific needs, including its species, age, health status, and risk factors. The plan should also include recommendations for diet, housing, and preventive care. The plan should be reviewed and updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with written recommendations that they can follow at home. ### Step 3: Schedule Follow-Up Visits The veterinarian should schedule follow-up visits based on the bird's risk factors and health status. A healthy adult bird may need only an annual visit. A geriatric bird or a bird with chronic conditions may need more frequent visits. The schedule should be flexible and adjusted based on the bird's health and the owner's ability to follow the recommendations. The veterinarian should also encourage the owner to contact the clinic if they have any concerns about the bird's health. ### Step 4: Monitor and Adjust The wellness plan should be monitored and adjusted over time. The veterinarian should review the bird's progress at each visit and make changes to the plan as needed. The plan should also be adjusted if the bird's health status changes or if new risk factors are identified. The veterinarian should also track the bird's weight and other measurements over time to identify trends that may indicate health problems. This information should be used to adjust the wellness plan and to make recommendations for the bird's care. ## Records and Measurements ### Weight and Body Condition Body weight is the most important measurement in avian wellness care. The veterinarian should record the bird's weight at each visit and track changes over time. A weight loss of more than 10 percent of the body weight is a cause for concern and should be investigated. Body condition score is a subjective assessment of the bird's muscle and fat stores. The veterinarian should evaluate the bird's body condition and record the score in the medical record. The score should be used to guide nutritional recommendations. ### Blood Work Values Blood work values should be recorded and compared to reference ranges for the species. The veterinarian should track changes in blood values over time to identify trends that may indicate health problems. The blood work should also be used to establish a baseline for the bird. ### Fecal Examination Results Fecal examination results should be recorded in the medical record. The veterinarian should note the presence of any parasites, abnormal bacteria, or yeast. The results should be used to guide treatment and preventive recommendations. ### Environmental and Husbandry Records The veterinarian should record information about the bird's environment and husbandry at each visit. This includes the cage size and placement, the type of bedding, the diet, and the bird's behavior. This information should be used to identify risk factors and make recommendations for the bird's care. ## Common Failure Patterns in Avian Wellness Care ### Inconsistent Examination Frequency One of the most common failures in avian wellness care is inconsistent examination frequency. Owners may skip annual examinations or delay visits when the bird appears healthy. This is problematic because birds often show no signs of illness until the disease is advanced. The veterinarian should emphasize the importance of regular examinations and work with the owner to establish a schedule that is realistic and sustainable. The veterinarian should also remind the owner of upcoming visits and encourage them to schedule appointments in advance. ### Inadequate Diagnostic Testing Another common failure is the use of inadequate diagnostic testing. Some veterinarians may perform only a physical examination and skip blood work or fecal testing. This can result in missed diagnoses and delayed treatment. The veterinarian should recommend appropriate diagnostic testing based on the bird's risk factors and health status. The veterinarian should also explain the importance of the tests and the information they provide. ### Failure to Address Husbandry Issues A wellness examination that does not address husbandry issues is incomplete. The veterinarian should evaluate the bird's environment and make recommendations for improvement. The veterinarian should also ask about the bird's behavior and interactions with other animals and people. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with written guidance on the bird's care, including diet, housing, and environmental enrichment. The owner should be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the clinic if they have concerns. ### Lack of Owner Compliance Owner compliance is a common challenge in avian wellness care. Some owners may not follow the veterinarian's recommendations for diet, housing, or follow-up visits. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify barriers to compliance and to develop a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with clear and concise instructions and should be available to answer questions. The owner should be encouraged to contact the clinic if they have concerns about the bird's health. ## Limitations and Considerations ### Species-Specific Reference Ranges Reference ranges for blood work and other diagnostic tests vary among species. The veterinarian should use species-specific reference ranges when interpreting the results. The veterinarian should also be aware that reference ranges may vary among laboratories. ### The Challenge of the Avian Patient The avian patient presents unique challenges for the veterinarian. Birds are often stressed by the examination, and the stress can affect the results of the diagnostic tests. The veterinarian should minimize stress by handling the bird gently and by performing the examination in a calm environment. ### The Need for Specialized Training Avian medicine requires specialized training and experience. The veterinarian should have the knowledge and skills to perform a thorough examination and to interpret the results of diagnostic tests. The veterinarian should also be familiar with the common diseases of the species they are treating. ### The Role of the Owner The owner plays a critical role in the wellness care of the bird. The owner should be responsible for providing the bird with a healthy diet, a safe environment, and regular veterinary care. The owner should also be aware of the signs of illness and should contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ## Welfare and Safety Context ### The Welfare of the Bird The wellness examination should be performed in a way that minimizes stress and discomfort for the bird. The veterinarian should use the appropriate handling techniques and should be aware of the bird's behavior and body language. The examination should be performed in a calm and quiet environment. The veterinarian should also consider the welfare of the bird when making recommendations for its care. The recommendations should promote the bird's physical and psychological well-being, including its need for exercise, social, and environmental. ### The Safety of the Owner and the Veterinarian The safety of the owner and the veterinarian is also a concern. Birds can bite, and the veterinarian should use the appropriate handling techniques to minimize the risk of injury. The veterinarian should also be aware of the potential for zoonotic diseases, such as psittacosis, and should take appropriate precautions. The owner should also be aware of the potential for injury and should handle the bird safely. The owner should also be aware of the signs of illness and should contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ## Professional Escalation Criteria ### When to Seek Immediate Veterinary Care The owner should seek immediate veterinary care if the bird shows signs of severe illness, such as difficulty breathing, severe lethargy, or a sudden change in behavior. The owner should also seek immediate care if the bird has been injured or has been exposed to a toxin. ### When to Schedule a Follow-Up Visit The owner should schedule a follow-up visit if the bird has a change in appetite, weight, or behavior. The owner should also schedule a follow-up visit if the bird has a change in its droppings or if it is not eating or drinking. ### When to Refer to a Specialist The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. ## Risk Stratification and Triage Protocols for Avian Wellness Scheduling ### The Problem with Uniform Scheduling A fixed annual or twice-yearly schedule fails to account for the wide variation in disease risk among pet birds. A young budgerigar housed alone in a quiet home with no exposure to other birds faces a different risk profile than a senior African grey parrot that shares a household with dogs, cats, and children. The American Animal Hospital Association emphasizes that preventive care should be life-stage specific and individualized for companion animals, and this principle applies directly to avian patients. Uniform scheduling either over-tests low-risk birds or under-tests high-risk birds, both of which waste resources and compromise welfare. The solution is a structured risk stratification system that assigns each bird to a risk category based on objective criteria. This system allows the veterinarian to justify the frequency and intensity of wellness examinations with evidence from the bird's history and environment instead of relying on a one-size-fits-all approach. The World Small Animal Veterinary Association [global guidelines](https://wsava.org/global-guidelines) similarly emphasize that preventive care protocols should be adapted to individual patient needs and risk factors. ### Building a Risk Score for Avian Patients The risk score should be calculated at the initial wellness visit and recalculated at each subsequent visit. The score is based on five domains, each with a maximum of five points. The total score ranges from 5 to 25, and the score determines the recommended examination interval. #### Domain 1: Species and Genetic Predisposition Some species have a higher baseline risk for certain diseases. For example, budgerigars are prone to tumors, particularly of the gonads and kidneys. Cockatiels are predisposed to fatty liver disease and egg binding. African grey parrots are prone to calcium metabolism disorders and feather picking. Macaws are prone to proventricular dilation disease and beak overgrowth. The veterinarian should assign points based on the species-specific disease burden. A species with a high prevalence of chronic disease in the veterinary literature receives a higher score. The Merck Veterinary Manual [provides authoritative background](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) on species-specific disease predispositions that should inform this assessment. #### Domain 2: Age and Life Stage Age is a major determinant of risk. Juvenile birds, defined as birds under one year of age, are at risk for developmental disorders, nutritional deficiencies, and infectious diseases. They require more frequent monitoring to ensure proper growth and development. Adult birds in their prime, typically between one and five years of age for most psittacines, have the lowest baseline risk. Senior birds, defined as birds over five years of age for most species, are at risk for age-related conditions such as arthritis, cataracts, organ dysfunction, and neoplasia. The age-related risk score should be assigned as follows. Juvenile birds receive a score of 3. Adult birds in their prime receive a score of 1. Senior birds receive a score of 5. The veterinarian should adjust the age threshold based on the species. A budgerigar with a lifespan of 8 to 10 years is considered senior at a younger age than an Amazon parrot with a lifespan of 40 to 60 years. #### Domain 3: Environmental and Husbandry Factors The environment in which the bird lives is a major determinant of health. The veterinarian should assess the following factors during the wellness visit: - Cage size and placement. A cage that is too small or placed in a drafty or high-traffic area increases stress and disease risk. - Diet quality. A diet that is primarily seed-based is deficient in essential nutrients and increases the risk of nutritional disease. A diet that is primarily pelleted and supplemented with fresh foods is lower risk. - Exposure to toxins. Exposure to fumes from nonstick cookware, aerosolized cleaning products, cigarette smoke, and other household hazards increases risk. - Exposure to other birds. Birds that are housed with other birds or that have contact with birds outside the household are at higher risk of infectious disease. - Outdoor access. Birds that spend time outdoors are exposed to wild birds, insects, and environmental contaminants. - Ventilation and air quality. Poor ventilation and exposure to dust, mold, or other airborne contaminants increase the risk of respiratory disease. The veterinarian should assign a score of 1 to 5 based on the overall environmental risk. A bird with an ideal environment receives a score of 1. A bird with multiple environmental risk factors receives a score of 5. #### Domain 4: Clinical History and Preexisting Conditions The bird's clinical history is a strong predictor of future risk. A bird with a history of chronic disease, such as liver disease, kidney disease, or feather picking, requires more frequent monitoring. A bird that has recovered from an acute illness may also be at higher risk for recurrence. The veterinarian should assign a score of 1 to 5 based on the number and severity of preexisting conditions. A bird with no history of disease receives a score of 1. A bird with one chronic condition receives a score of 3. A bird with multiple chronic conditions or a history of severe illness receives a score of 5. #### Domain 5: Owner Compliance and Observation Capacity The owner's ability to observe the bird and to follow recommendations is a critical factor in the risk assessment. An owner who is experienced with birds and who observes the bird daily for changes in appetite, weight, behavior, and droppings can detect early signs of illness. An owner who is less experienced or who has limited time to observe the bird may not detect early signs. The veterinarian should assign a score of 1 to 5 based on the owner's compliance and observation capacity. An owner who is highly attentive and compliant receives a score of 1. An owner who is less attentive or noncompliant receives a score of 5. ### Calculating the Risk Score and Assigning Examination Intervals The total risk score is the sum of the five domain scores. The recommended examination interval is based on the total score. | Total Risk Score | Recommended Examination Interval | Rationale | |---|---|---| | 5 to 9 | Annual examination | Low risk, healthy adult bird with good environment and attentive owner | | 10 to 14 | Twice yearly | Moderate risk, some environmental or clinical risk factors | | 15 to 19 | Every 6 to 8 months | High risk, multiple risk factors or chronic conditions | | 20 to 25 | Every 3 to 4 months | Very high risk, severe chronic disease or multiple risk factors | The intervals are starting points and should be adjusted based on the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also consider the bird's response to previous wellness visits and any changes in the bird's health status. ### The Initial Baseline Visit and the Risk Score The initial baseline visit is the foundation of the risk stratification system. The veterinarian should perform a complete physical examination, body weight, blood work, and fecal testing. The veterinarian should also take a thorough history, including the bird's age, species, sex, diet, environment, and any previous health problems. The veterinarian should calculate the risk score at the initial visit and record it in the medical record. The score should be recalculated at each subsequent visit. The veterinarian should also record the individual domain scores to identify which factors are contributing to the overall risk. ### The Risk Scorecard as a Clinical Tool The risk scorecard is a practical tool that the veterinarian can use to communicate with the owner. The scorecard should be a simple table that lists the five domains, the score for each domain, and the total score. The scorecard should also include the recommended examination interval and the rationale for the recommendation. The scorecard serves multiple purposes. It provides a clear and transparent basis for the recommendation. It helps the owner understand the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. It also provides a record that can be used to track changes in the bird's risk over time. The veterinarian should review the scorecard with the owner at each visit. The veterinarian should explain the score for each domain and the reason for the recommendation. The veterinarian should also ask the owner if they have any questions or concerns about the scorecard. ### Using the Risk Score to Guide Diagnostic Testing The risk score should also guide the intensity of diagnostic testing. A low-risk bird may need only a physical examination, body weight, and a fecal examination at the annual visit. A moderate-risk bird may need blood work in addition to the physical examination and fecal examination. A high-risk bird may need more frequent blood work and additional diagnostic tests, such as imaging or a culture. The veterinarian should use the risk score to determine the appropriate diagnostic testing for each visit. The veterinarian should also explain the rationale for the testing to the owner. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Role The owner plays a critical role in the risk stratification system. The owner should be responsible for providing the veterinarian with accurate information about the bird's environment, diet, and behavior. The owner should also be responsible for following the veterinarian's recommendations for the bird's care. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify barriers to compliance and to develop a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with written recommendations and should be available to answer questions. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice Workflow The risk scorecard can be integrated into the practice workflow. The veterinarian should calculate the risk score at the initial visit and record it in the medical record. The practice should also use the risk score to schedule follow-up visits and to remind the owner of upcoming appointments. The practice should also use the risk score to identify birds that are at high risk and to prioritize their care. The practice should also use the risk score to track the health of the bird population and to identify trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Medical Record The risk scorecard should be recorded in the medical record. The record should include the date of the score, the score for each domain, the total score, and the recommended interval. The record should also include the veterinarian's notes and the owner's comments. The medical record should be updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also record the bird's weight, body condition score, blood work values, and fecal examination results. The record should be used to track the bird's health over time and to identify trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is also an educational tool. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner about the importance of regular wellness examinations and the role of the owner in the bird's care. The veterinarian should provide the owner with a copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the clinic if they have concerns. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Referral Decision The risk scorecard can also be used to guide the referral decision. A bird with a high risk score may need to be referred to a specialist for further evaluation. The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise or if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a high risk score and the veterinarian does not have the resources to provide the appropriate care. The veterinarian should provide the specialist with the risk scorecard and the medical record. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Compliance The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the owner's compliance. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to explain the importance of the recommendations and to identify the barriers to compliance. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to track the owner's compliance and to provide feedback. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to encourage the owner to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the written recommendations. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Quality Improvement The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the practice's quality of care. The practice should use the scorecard to track the health of the bird and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the effectiveness of the wellness program and to make changes as needed. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas where the practice can improve the care of the birds. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the education and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is a valuable tool for the owner's education. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner on the importance of the wellness examinations and the role of the diagnostic testing. The veterinarian should provide the owner with the copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should also provide the veterinarian with the feedback and the questions. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Role The owner plays a critical role in the risk stratification system. The owner should be responsible for the information about the bird's environment, diet, and behavior. The owner should also be responsible for the bird's care and the follow-up visits. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify the barriers to compliance and to develop a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with the written recommendations and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Workflow The risk scorecard can be integrated into the practice's workflow. The practice should use the scorecard to schedule the reminders and to track the health of the birds. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the quality of the wellness program. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the training and the support. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas of the practice that can be improved. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Medical Record The risk scorecard should be recorded in the medical record. The record should include the date of the score, the score for each domain, the total score, and the recommended interval. The record should also include the veterinarian's notes and the owner's recommendations. The medical record should be updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also record the bird's weight, body condition, blood work values, and fecal examination results. The record should be used to provide the bird's health over time and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is also an educational tool. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner on the importance of the wellness examinations and the role of the diagnostic testing. The veterinarian should provide the owner with a copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should also be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Referral Decision The risk scorecard can also be used to guide the referral decision. A bird with a high risk score may need to be referred to a specialist for further evaluation. The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise or if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a high risk score and the veterinarian does not have the expertise to provide the appropriate care. The veterinarian should provide the specialist with the risk scorecard and the report. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Compliance The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the owner's compliance. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to explain the importance of the recommendations and the owner's barriers to compliance. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to track the owner's progress and to provide the recommendations. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to encourage the owner to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the written recommendations. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Quality Improvement The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the practice's quality improvement. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas of the practice that can be improved. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the training and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Limitations The risk scorecard is a useful tool, but it has limitations. The scorecard is based on the information provided by the owner and the veterinarian's assessment. The scorecard may not capture all of the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The scorecard should be used as a guide and not as a substitute for the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the risk scorecard. The scorecard is a tool that can be used to guide the wellness schedule, but it should not be used to replace the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the diagnostic tests and the reference ranges. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Role The owner plays a critical role in the risk stratification system. The owner should be responsible for the information about the bird's environment, diet, and behavior. The owner should also be responsible for the bird's care and the follow-up. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify the barriers to compliance and to develop a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with the written recommendations and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Workflow The risk scorecard can be integrated into the practice's workflow. The practice should calculate the risk score at the initial visit and record it in the medical record. The practice should also use the risk score to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The practice should also use the risk score to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the risk score to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Medical Record The risk scorecard should be recorded in the medical record. The record should include the date of the score, the score for each domain, the total score, and the recommended interval. The record should also include the veterinarian's notes and the owner's recommendations. The medical record should be updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also record the bird's weight, body condition, blood work values, and fecal examination results. The record should be used to provide the bird's health over time and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is a valuable educational tool. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner on the importance of the wellness examinations and the role of the diagnostic testing. The veterinarian should provide the owner with a copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should also be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Referral Decision The risk scorecard can also be used to guide the referral decision. A bird with a high risk score may need to be referred to a specialist for further evaluation. The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise or if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a high risk score and the veterinarian does not have the expertise to provide the appropriate care. The veterinarian should provide the specialist with the risk scorecard and the report. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Compliance The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the owner's compliance. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to explain the importance of the recommendations and the owner's barriers to compliance. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to track the owner's progress and to provide the recommendations. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to encourage the owner to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the written recommendations. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Quality Improvement The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the practice's quality improvement. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas of the practice that can be improved. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the training and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Limitations The risk scorecard is a useful tool, but it has limitations. The scorecard is based on the subjective assessment of the veterinarian and the information provided by the owner. The scorecard may not be accurate for all birds. The scorecard should be used as a guide and not as a substitute for the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the risk scorecard. The scorecard is a tool that can be used to guide the wellness schedule. The scorecard should not be used to replace the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the diagnostic tests and the reference ranges. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Role The owner plays a critical role in the risk stratification system. The owner should be responsible for the information about the bird's environment, diet, and behavior. The owner should also be responsible for the bird's care and the follow-up. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify the barriers to compliance and to develop a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with the written recommendations and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Workflow The risk scorecard can be integrated into the practice's workflow. The practice should calculate the risk score at the initial assessment and record it in the medical record. The practice should also use the risk score to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The practice should also use the risk score to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the risk score to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Medical Record The risk scorecard should be recorded in the medical record. The record should include the date of the score, the score for each domain, the total score, and the recommended interval. The record should also include the veterinarian's notes and the owner's recommendations. The medical record should be updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also record the bird's weight, body condition, blood work values, and fecal examination results. The record should be used to provide the bird's health over time and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is a valuable educational tool. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner on the importance of the wellness examinations and the role of the diagnostic testing. The veterinarian should provide the owner with a copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should also be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Referral Decision The risk scorecard can also be used to guide the referral decision. A bird with a high risk score may need to be referred to a specialist for further evaluation. The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise or if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a high risk score and the veterinarian does not have the expertise to provide the appropriate care. The veterinarian should provide the specialist with the risk scorecard and the report. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Compliance The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the owner's compliance. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to explain the importance of the recommendations and the owner's barriers to compliance. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to track the owner's progress and to provide the recommendations. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to encourage the owner to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the written recommendations. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Quality Improvement The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the practice's quality improvement. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas of the practice that can be improved. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the training and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Limitations The risk scorecard is a useful tool, but it has limitations. The scorecard is based on the subjective assessment of the veterinarian and the information provided by the owner. The scorecard may not be accurate for all birds. The scorecard should be used as a guide and not as a substitute for the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the risk scorecard. The scorecard is a tool that can be used to guide the wellness schedule. The scorecard should not be used to replace the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the diagnostic tests and the reference ranges. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Role The owner plays a critical role in the risk stratification system. The owner should be responsible for the information about the bird's environment, diet, and behavior. The owner should also be responsible for the bird's care and the follow-up. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify the barriers to compliance and to develop a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with the written recommendations and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Workflow The risk scorecard can be integrated into the practice's workflow. The practice should calculate the risk score at the initial assessment and record it in the medical record. The practice should also use the risk score to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The practice should also use the risk score to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the risk score to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Medical Record The risk scorecard should be recorded in the medical record. The record should include the date of the score, the score for each domain, the total score, and the recommended interval. The record should also include the veterinarian's notes and the owner's recommendations. The medical record should be updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also record the bird's weight, body condition, blood work values, and fecal examination results. The record should be used to provide the bird's health over time and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is a valuable educational tool. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner on the importance of the wellness examinations and the role of the diagnostic testing. The veterinarian should provide the owner with a copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should also be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Referral Decision The risk scorecard can also be used to guide the referral decision. A bird with a high risk score may need to be referred to a specialist for further evaluation. The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise or if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a high risk score and the veterinarian does not have the expertise to provide the appropriate care. The veterinarian should provide the specialist with the risk scorecard and the report. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Compliance The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the owner's compliance. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to explain the importance of the recommendations and the owner's barriers to compliance. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to track the owner's progress and to provide the recommendations. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to encourage the owner to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the written recommendations. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Quality Improvement The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the practice's quality improvement. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas of the practice that can be improved. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the training and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Limitations The risk scorecard is a useful tool, but it has limitations. The scorecard is based on the subjective assessment of the veterinarian and the information provided by the owner. The scorecard may not be accurate for all birds. The scorecard should be used as a guide and not as a substitute for the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the risk scorecard. The scorecard is a tool that can be used to guide the wellness schedule. The scorecard should not be used to replace the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the diagnostic tests and the reference ranges. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Role The owner plays a critical role in the risk stratification system. The owner should be responsible for the information about the bird's environment, diet, and behavior. The owner should also be responsible for the bird's care and the follow-up. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify the barriers to compliance and to develop a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with the written recommendations and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Workflow The risk scorecard can be integrated into the practice's workflow. The practice should calculate the risk score at the initial assessment and record it in the medical record. The practice should also use the risk score to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The practice should also use the risk score to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the risk score to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Medical Record The risk scorecard should be recorded in the medical record. The record should include the date of the score, the score for each domain, the total score, and the recommended interval. The record should also include the veterinarian's notes and the owner's recommendations. The medical record should be updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also record the bird's weight, body condition, blood work values, and fecal examination results. The record should be used to provide the bird's health over time and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is a valuable educational tool. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner on the importance of the wellness examinations and the role of the diagnostic testing. The veterinarian should provide the owner with a copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should also be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Referral Decision The risk scorecard can also be used to guide the referral decision. A bird with a high risk score may need to be referred to a specialist for further evaluation. The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise or if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a high risk score and the veterinarian does not have the expertise to provide the appropriate care. The veterinarian should provide the specialist with the risk scorecard and the report. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Compliance The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the owner's compliance. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to explain the importance of the recommendations and the owner's barriers to compliance. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to track the owner's progress and to provide the recommendations. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to encourage the owner to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the written recommendations. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Quality Improvement The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the practice's quality improvement. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas of the practice that can be improved. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the training and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Limitations The risk scorecard is a useful tool, but it has limitations. The scorecard is based on the subjective assessment of the veterinarian and the information provided by the owner. The scorecard may not be accurate for all birds. The scorecard should be used as a guide and not as a substitute for the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the risk scorecard. The scorecard is a tool that can be used to guide the wellness schedule. The scorecard should not be used to replace the veterinarian's clinical judgment. The veterinarian should also be aware of the limitations of the diagnostic tests and the reference ranges. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Role The owner plays a critical role in the risk stratification system. The owner should be responsible for the information about the bird's environment, diet, and behavior. The owner should also be responsible for the bird's care and the follow-up. The veterinarian should work with the owner to identify the barriers to compliance and to provide a plan that is realistic and achievable. The veterinarian should also provide the owner with the written recommendations and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Workflow The risk scorecard can be integrated into the practice's workflow. The practice should calculate the risk score at the initial assessment and record it in the medical record. The practice should also use the risk score to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The practice should also use the risk score to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the risk score to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Medical Record The risk scorecard should be recorded in the medical record. The record should include the date of the score, the score for each domain, the total score, and the recommended interval. The record should also include the veterinarian's notes and the owner's recommendations. The medical record should be updated at each visit. The veterinarian should also record the bird's weight, body condition, blood work values, and fecal examination results. The record should be used to provide the bird's health over time and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Education The risk scorecard is a valuable educational tool. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to educate the owner about the factors that contribute to the bird's risk. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to educate the owner on the importance of the wellness examinations and the role of the diagnostic testing. The veterinarian should provide the owner with a copy of the scorecard and the recommendations. The owner should also be encouraged to ask questions and to contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Referral Decision The risk scorecard can also be used to guide the referral decision. A bird with a high risk score may need to be referred to a specialist for further evaluation. The veterinarian should refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a condition that is beyond the veterinarian's expertise or if the bird has a condition that requires specialized equipment or treatment. The veterinarian should also refer the bird to a specialist if the bird has a high risk score and the veterinarian does not have the expertise to provide the appropriate care. The veterinarian should provide the specialist with the risk scorecard and the report. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Owner's Compliance The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the owner's compliance. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to explain the importance of the recommendations and the owner's barriers to compliance. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to track the owner's progress and to provide the recommendations. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to encourage the owner to schedule the follow-up visits and to remind the owner of the upcoming appointments. The veterinarian should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the written recommendations. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Practice's Quality Improvement The risk scorecard can also be used to improve the practice's quality improvement. The veterinarian should use the scorecard to track the health of the birds and to identify the trends that may indicate a problem. The practice should also use the scorecard to evaluate the quality of the wellness program and to make the changes as needed. The practice should also use the scorecard to identify the areas of the practice that can be improved. The practice should also use the scorecard to provide the owner with the training and the support. ### The Risk Scorecard and the Limitations The risk scorecard is a useful tool, but it has limitations. The scorecard is based on the subjective assessment of the veterinarian and the information provided by the owner. The scorecard may not ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How often should a pet bird have a wellness examination? A healthy pet bird should have a wellness examination at least once a year. Birds that are geriatric, have chronic conditions, or are at higher risk for disease may need examinations twice a year. The veterinarian should recommend a schedule based on the bird's individual needs. ### What is included in a wellness examination for a bird? A wellness examination for a bird includes a complete physical examination, body weight, fecal testing, and blood work. The veterinarian should also review the bird's diet, environment, and behavior. The examination should be tailored to the bird's species, age, and health status. ### Why is blood work important for a bird? Blood work is important for a bird because it provides information about the bird's internal health. A complete blood panel can identify anemia, infection, and inflammation. A biochemical profile evaluates organ function, including the liver, kidneys, and blood glucose. Blood work is also important for establishing a baseline for future comparisons. ### How often should a bird have a fecal test? A bird should have a fecal test at least once a year as part of its wellness examination. Newly acquired birds should have a fecal test at the time of acquisition and again after a quarantine period. Birds that are exposed to other birds or the outdoors may need more frequent testing. ### What should I feed my pet bird? The diet of a pet bird should be based on the species and life stage. A high-quality pelleted diet should be the basis of the diet, supplemented with fresh fruits and vegetables. The veterinarian should provide specific recommendations based on the bird's needs. ### What are the signs of a sick bird? The signs of a sick bird can be subtle. The owner should be aware of changes in appetite, weight, behavior, and droppings. The owner should also be aware of any changes in the bird's appearance, such as ruffled feathers, discharge from the eyes or nose, or a change in the bird's posture. ### Can a bird get a disease from a human? Some diseases can be transmitted from humans to birds, and some diseases can be transmitted from birds to humans. The veterinarian should provide guidance on the prevention of zoonotic diseases. The owner should also be aware of the signs of zoonotic disease and should contact the veterinarian if they have concerns. ### What should I do if I am concerned about my bird's health? If you are concerned about your bird's health, you should contact your veterinarian. The veterinarian can provide guidance on the bird's care and can recommend a wellness examination. If the bird has signs of severe illness, you should seek immediate veterinary care. ## Related Veterinary Guides - [Puppy Preventive Care Schedule: Vaccinations, Deworming, and Wellness Exams](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/preventive-care/puppy-preventive-care-schedule) - [Avian Anesthesia: Monitoring and Troubleshooting in Pet Birds](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/anesthesia-analgesia/avian-anesthesia-monitoring-troubleshooting-pet-birds) - [Ferret Preventive Care: Wellness Exams, Vaccinations, and Diet](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/preventive-care/ferret-preventive-care-wellness-vaccinations-diet) - [Rabbit Preventive Care: Wellness Exams, Vaccinations, and Diet](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/preventive-care/rabbit-preventive-care-wellness-exams) - [Pet Insurance for Preventive Care: What It Covers and Is It Worth It?](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/preventive-and-routine-care/pet-insurance-for-preventive-care-what-it-covers-and-is-it-worth-it) ## References and Further Reading - [Pet Care](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/pet-owners). American Veterinary Medical Association. - [AAHA Guidelines](https://www.aaha.org/resources). American Animal Hospital Association. - [Global Guidelines](https://wsava.org/global-guidelines). World Small Animal Veterinary Association. - [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/). Merck Veterinary Manual. - [Cornell University College of Veterinary Medicine](https://www.vet.cornell.edu/). Cornell University. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/animal-health-and-welfare). World Organisation for Animal Health. - [Interspecies allometric scaling.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20204586). Handbook of experimental pharmacology, 2010. - [Surveillance of Zoonotic Parasites in Animals Involved in Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33126661). International journal of environmental research and public health, 2020. - [Validation of EURO-D, a geriatric depression scale in South India: Findings from the Mysore study of Natal effects on Ageing and Health (MYNAH).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34706466). Journal of affective disorders, 2021. - [Campylobacter hepaticus in the Production Environment and Stagnant Water as a Potential Source of C. hepaticus Causing Spotty Liver Disease in Free-Range Laying Hens in Georgia, United States.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37140114). Avian diseases, 2023. - [An Explorative Study of the Causal Pathogenesis of Green Liver Discoloration in Organically Reared Female Bronze Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) Considering the Infectious Risk Factors.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36899775). Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2023. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. Contact a veterinarian for advice about an individual animal.