# Radiation Safety in Veterinary Radiography: Principles and Practice


## Key Takeaways

- The ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle and the linear no-threshold model of stochastic risk are foundational to radiation safety, mandating dose reduction measures at all exposure levels to mitigate theoretical risks of carcinogenesis.
- Maximizing distance from the radiation source, governed by the inverse square law, is the most effective and cost-efficient protective measure, reducing exposure by a factor of four when distance is doubled.
- Personal monitoring with dosimeters worn at collar level outside lead aprons is crucial for estimating effective dose and identifying failures in protective practices, with a second dosimeter recommended for high-volume fluoroscopy to assess unshielded tissue dose.
- Essential personal protective equipment includes 0.5 mm lead equivalence lead aprons, thyroid shields, and leaded glasses with side shields, particularly during fluoroscopy, while lead gloves should only be used outside the primary beam to avoid increasing exposure time and scatter.
- Technique optimization through validated technique charts, tight collimation to the region of interest, and minimizing repeat exposures are critical for reducing both patient and staff radiation doses.
- Mandatory radiation safety training for all personnel operating X-ray equipment is vital, covering biological effects, ALARA principles, protective equipment use, and specific machine operating parameters to foster informed dose reduction behaviors.

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Veterinary radiography exposes personnel to ionizing radiation through primary beams, scatter, and leakage. The clinical question this article addresses is straightforward: how should a practice design, equip, and operate its imaging service to keep staff doses as low as reasonably achievable while preserving diagnostic image quality? The intended reader is the practicing veterinarian who performs or supervises radiographic and fluoroscopic examinations across species and who must make practical decisions about protective equipment, monitoring, and facility layout.

The scientific foundation of radiation safety rests on two principles: the linear no-threshold model of stochastic risk and the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) framework. Stochastic effects, principally carcinogenesis, are presumed to have no safe lower dose threshold, so every exposure carries some theoretical risk. Deterministic effects, such as radiation dermatitis or cataract formation, occur only above threshold doses and are relevant mainly to interventional work. The practical consequence is that dose reduction measures are justified at all exposure levels, also when regulatory limits approach. Survey data from veterinary specialists indicate that awareness of these risks does not reliably translate into protective behavior, with a substantial proportion of respondents reporting that they never wore hand or eye protection during fluoroscopy despite acknowledging that radiation causes cancer. This gap between knowledge and practice is a central target for the protocols described here.

## At a Glance

| Parameter | Decision or Standard | Clinical Relevance |
|---|---|---|
| Primary protective principle | ALARA, applied to every examination | Guides technique selection, positioning, and shielding choices |
| Personnel monitoring | Dosimeters worn at collar level outside lead apron | Estimates effective dose, required where exposure is possible |
| Eye protection | Leaded glasses or face shield during fluoroscopy | Prevents lens dose accumulation, often omitted in practice |
| Hand protection | Leaded gloves only outside primary beam | Gloves in the beam increase exposure time and scatter |
| Distance | Maximize distance from source, double distance quarters dose | Inverse square law governs scatter exposure |
| Technique optimization | Use lowest exposure factors that produce diagnostic images | Reduces both patient and staff dose |
| Training requirement | Mandatory radiation safety training for all personnel operating equipment | Availability of training varies by practice type |
| Facility design | Controlled access areas with shielded barriers and posted signage | Protects non-occupational personnel and the public |

## Physical Basis of Exposure and Protection

X-ray production occurs when accelerated electrons strike a target anode, converting kinetic energy into electromagnetic radiation and heat. The primary beam is the direct output of the tube, scatter radiation arises when the primary beam interacts with the patient or other matter and changes direction. Scatter is the dominant source of occupational exposure in diagnostic radiography because personnel position themselves near the patient during positioning and restraint. Leakage radiation from the tube housing is minimal in modern, well-maintained equipment but must be considered in older units.

The inverse square law states that radiation intensity decreases with the square of the distance from the source. Doubling the distance from a scatter source reduces exposure by a factor of four. This relationship is the most effective and least expensive protective measure available. Positioning aids such as sandbags, foam wedges, and tape should be used to eliminate the need for manual restraint whenever possible. When manual restraint is unavoidable, the restrainer must wear appropriate protective apparel and must never have any body part in the primary beam.

## ALARA in Veterinary Practice

ALARA is a management principle, not a fixed numerical standard. It requires that every imaging procedure be justified by a clinical indication, that the technique be optimized to use the minimum exposure that yields diagnostic information, and that dose reduction measures be implemented without compromising patient care. The principle applies to patient dose and staff dose alike, although the two are linked: reducing patient dose reduces scatter and therefore reduces staff exposure.

Technique charts are the primary tool for optimization. A chart that specifies kilovoltage, milliamperage, and exposure time for each body part and thickness eliminates the trial-and-error approach that produces repeat exposures. Repeat examinations double the patient dose and increase staff exposure proportionally. The relationship between exposure factors and image quality is covered in the related article on technique chart optimization.

## Personal Monitoring and Protective Equipment

Personnel monitoring serves two purposes: it documents individual dose accumulation and it identifies failures in protective practices. Dosimeters should be worn at collar level, outside the lead apron, to estimate effective dose. A second dosimeter worn under the apron at waist level is recommended for personnel who perform high-volume fluoroscopy, because it allows estimation of the dose to unshielded tissues. Monitoring results should be reviewed regularly, and any unexpected reading should trigger an investigation of technique and equipment function.

Protective apparel must be matched to the examination type. Lead aprons of 0.5 mm lead equivalence are standard for diagnostic work. Thyroid shields are mandatory because the thyroid is a radiosensitive organ and is frequently outside the apron's protected area. Leaded glasses with side shields protect the lens, and their use is specifically recommended during fluoroscopy. Survey data from veterinary specialists performing fluoroscopy show that eye protection is the most frequently omitted item of protective equipment, with reported reasons including poor fit, discomfort, and interference with task performance. These practical barriers should be addressed through equipment selection, not dismissed as acceptable trade-offs.

Lead gloves reduce hand dose but must never be placed in the primary beam. Doing so increases exposure time because the automatic exposure control compensates for the attenuation, and the gloves themselves become a source of scatter. Hand dose during fluoroscopy is best controlled by keeping hands out of the beam and using positioning aids.

## Facility Design and Equipment Considerations

The imaging room must be designed so that the primary beam is always directed toward a shielded barrier or wall, never toward doors, windows, or waiting areas. The control booth must be large enough to allow the operator to remain behind the barrier during exposure while maintaining visual contact with the patient. A leaded glass window or a remote camera system satisfies this requirement. The room must be posted with the standard radiation warning sign, and access must be restricted to authorized personnel during exposures.

Portable and mobile units present a different set of challenges. They are used in wards, surgery suites, and field settings where fixed shielding is unavailable. The operator must establish a controlled area around the unit, using portable lead barriers where available, and must ensure that all personnel not directly involved in the examination are outside the controlled area. The inverse square law is the primary protection in these settings, and the operator should stand at the maximum distance permitted by the equipment's control cable.

## Training and Program Oversight

Radiation safety training must be mandatory for all personnel who operate x-ray equipment or handle radioactive materials. The content should cover the biological effects of radiation, the principles of ALARA, the correct use of protective equipment, and the proper operation of the specific equipment in use. Training on machine operating parameters is particularly important, because personnel who understand how kilovoltage, milliamperage, and pulse rate affect dose are more likely to adjust those parameters to reduce exposure. Survey data indicate that training availability varies substantially between academic and private practice settings, and that a meaningful proportion of specialists have received no formal radiation safety training at all.

Program oversight should include regular review of monitoring results, inspection of protective equipment for cracks and wear, and verification that technique charts are current. Key performance indicators, such as the number of personnel exceeding a predefined dose threshold or the rate of repeat examinations, provide objective measures of program effectiveness. These indicators allow a practice to identify problems before they result in measurable harm.

## Practical Safety Protocols for Common Imaging Procedures

### Standard Radiography: Workflow and Exposure Decisions

The radiographic examination begins before the animal enters the imaging room. Review the study request, confirm patient identity against the medical record, and verify that the requested projection is clinically indicated. A radiograph obtained for the wrong reason or the wrong patient delivers dose without diagnostic benefit, and incorrect patient identification accounts for a substantial fraction of reported radiation incidents in human imaging [Finnish adverse event reporting analysis](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32088064/). The same failure mode applies in veterinary practice.

Position the patient and the cassette or detector before energising the tube. Use sandbags, foam wedges, tape, and positioning troughs to maintain restraint without personnel in the primary beam. Manual restraint by a staff member should be the exception, not the default. When manual restraint is unavoidable, the holder must wear lead gloves and a lead apron, and the exposure should be made at the lowest practicable technique that still yields a diagnostic image. Never allow any person to hold the patient during equine extremity radiography when positioning aids can achieve the same result.

Select exposure factors from a validated technique chart specific to the machine, the detector system, and the anatomic region. Adjust for patient thickness using the chart's stated increments. Do not estimate factors from memory or habit. The interrelationship between kilovoltage, milliamperage, and exposure time determines both image quality and patient dose, and consistent quality radiographs require disciplined use of these primary factors [principles of conventional radiography and fluoroscopy](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8465489/). Collimate tightly to the region of interest. Collimation reduces scatter, improves contrast, and lowers dose to staff and patient alike. Use the light beam diaphragm and confirm the field borders before each exposure.

The decision to repeat a radiograph should be made deliberately. A repeat exposure doubles patient dose and adds staff exposure. Common causes of repeats include positioning error, motion blur, incorrect technique, and detector artefacts. If a repeat is required, identify the specific fault and correct it before re-exposing. Do not simply increase technique without a stated reason. For conscious patients, motion blur is best prevented by adequate physical restraint, not by shortening exposure time to compensate for poor positioning.

### Fluoroscopy: Dose Management and Operator Behavior

Fluoroscopy presents a different risk profile than static radiography because exposure continues over time and the operator works close to the primary beam. Survey data from veterinary specialists performing small animal fluoroscopy show that more than 95% of respondents acknowledged that radiation causes cancer, yet approximately 60% never wore hand or eye protection during procedures and 28% never adjusted machine operating parameters to reduce their dose [self-reported radiation safety behaviors among veterinary specialists](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34388017/). This gap between knowledge and behavior is the central target of fluoroscopic safety protocols.

Apply the following sequence before and during every fluoroscopic procedure:

1. Use the lowest available fluoroscopy mode. Pulsed fluoroscopy at the lowest acceptable frame rate reduces dose substantially compared with continuous mode.
2. Use last image hold and store fluoroscopy loops instead of recording full cine runs when the diagnostic question can be answered from stored frames.
3. Keep the image intensifier or flat panel detector as close to the patient as possible and the x-ray tube as far as possible. This geometry minimizes patient dose and reduces scatter reaching the operator.
4. Collimate to the field of interest. Fluoroscopic collimation is frequently neglected because the dynamic image makes field borders less obvious.
5. Use magnification modes only when the anatomy cannot be resolved otherwise. Magnification increases dose.
6. Step on the foot pedal only while actively viewing the image. Every second of fluoroscopy time adds dose.
7. Move the operator's hands and torso out of the primary beam whenever the image is being acquired.

Operators who received training on machine operating parameters were more likely to adjust those parameters to reduce their dose [self-reported radiation safety behaviors among veterinary specialists](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34388017/). This finding argues for hands-on training on each fluoroscopy unit, also general radiation safety instruction. The settings available vary by manufacturer and unit generation, so training must be unit-specific.

### Dose Monitoring and Investigation Thresholds

Personal dosimetry is the primary tool for verifying that protection measures are working. The dosimeter should be worn at the collar level outside the lead apron to estimate effective dose, and a second dosimeter under the apron can be used to estimate dose to the protected body. Extremity dosimeters should be worn by personnel whose hands enter the primary beam, particularly during fluoroscopy and manual restraint.

Review dosimetry reports at least quarterly. Track trends, also single readings. A gradual upward trend in collar dose may indicate a change in caseload, a degradation of protective equipment, or a lapse in technique. Investigate any reading that exceeds the facility's investigation level, which should be set below the regulatory limit to provide early warning. The investigation should identify the cause, correct it, and document the outcome.

Key performance indicators provide a structured method for evaluating a radiation safety program over time [key performance indicators in radiation safety program evaluation](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27356165/). Useful indicators for a veterinary facility include:

| Indicator | Measurement | Action threshold |
|-----------|-------------|------------------|
| Dosimetry compliance | Percentage of monitored staff returning dosimeters each period | Below 95% triggers reminder and retraining |
| Repeat rate | Percentage of radiographs repeated for technical fault | Above 5% triggers technique chart review |
| Fluoroscopy time per procedure type | Median and range for common procedures | Above baseline by 50% triggers operator review |
| Protective equipment integrity | Annual inspection pass rate for aprons and gloves | Any failed item removed from service immediately |
| Training completion | Percentage of imaging staff with current certification | Below 100% triggers suspension of imaging privileges |

These indicators should be reviewed annually and reported to the practice owner or safety officer. The value of the indicators lies in trend detection, not in a single measurement.

### Species-Specific and Setting-Specific Modifications

Equine radiography introduces unique constraints. The patient is large, often standing, and cannot be positioned with the same ease as a small animal. Portable and mobile units are common, and the operator may stand at a distance from the unit. Use extension arms and stands to position the tube head, and use cassette holders on stands instead of having a person hold the cassette. The primary beam during equine extremity work is often directed horizontally, which increases the scatter field at staff height. Stand behind a mobile lead shield when the exposure is made, and never stand in the line of the primary beam.

Large animal practitioners performing field radiography should carry a portable lead shield or use distance as the primary protection. The inverse square law is the most reliable protection in the field: doubling the distance from the source reduces exposure by a factor of four. When a portable unit is used in a stable or paddock, establish a controlled area and keep all nonessential personnel outside it.

For practices with low imaging caseloads, the cost of a comprehensive radiation safety program can seem disproportionate. The program should scale with the workload, but the core elements do not change. A practice that performs one thoracic radiograph per week still needs a technique chart, a quality control log, personal dosimetry for staff who hold animals, and documented training. The mandatory nature of radiation safety training varies by institution type, with academic institutions more likely to require it than private practices [survey of veterinary specialists on radiation safety training availability](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29641330/). Practices should not wait for a regulatory mandate to implement basic protections.

### Documentation and Quality Assurance Records

Maintain a radiation safety log that records each imaging session, the machine used, the technique factors, and any incidents or near misses. The log serves two purposes: it provides the data for key performance indicator review, and it creates a record that can be examined if a dosimetry reading triggers investigation. Record repeat exposures and their causes. Record any occasion where a staff member was in the primary beam, any equipment malfunction, and any protective equipment failure.

The quality assurance program should include a schedule for equipment testing. Test collimation accuracy, beam alignment, and timer accuracy at intervals specified by the manufacturer or by local requirements. Keep the test records with the radiation safety log. A machine that fails collimation testing delivers dose outside the intended field and should be removed from service until repaired.

Annual review of the radiation safety program should include a walkthrough of the imaging area, inspection of all protective equipment, review of dosimetry trends, and confirmation that training records are current. The review should be documented and signed by the responsible individual. This review is the mechanism by which the program improves, and it should identify specific actions for the coming year instead of serving as a formality.

## Recognized Complications and Early Detection

The most consequential failure in veterinary radiography is unintended human exposure. Survey data from veterinary specialists performing fluoroscopy show that more than 95% of respondents believed radiation causes cancer, yet approximately 60% never wore hand or eye protection and 28% never adjusted machine operating parameters to reduce dose [self-reported radiation safety behaviors among veterinary specialists](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34388017/). This gap between belief and behavior is the primary failure mode.

Equipment malfunction constitutes a second category. Collimator misalignment, grid cassette mismatch, and automatic exposure control (AEC) drift produce repeated exposures and retakes. Each retake doubles the dose for that projection. Detecting these problems early requires a scheduled quality control program that includes collimation field alignment tests, kVp and mAs output checks, and AEC reproducibility testing. A radiograph that is consistently overexposed or underexposed across different patients and positions should prompt equipment evaluation before technique chart revision.

Personnel dosimetry anomalies warrant immediate attention. A monthly dose that exceeds the investigation level for the facility, a sudden increase from baseline, or a dosimeter reading that cannot be explained by the logged workload requires review of positioning practices, protective equipment integrity, and whether the dosimeter was worn correctly. Lead apron defects are a recognized source of unexpected exposure and should be checked fluoroscopically or radiographically at least annually.

## Common Errors and Corrective Action

Less experienced personnel commonly position themselves incorrectly relative to the primary beam. Standing at the tube side instead of the image receptor side, failing to use positioning aids that allow hands to remain outside the beam, and holding animals manually when chemical restraint is available are recurring errors. The corrective action is protocol-based: every examination should have a defined positioning plan that identifies where each staff member stands before the exposure is made.

Beam collimation errors are equally common. Students and new graduates often collimate to the cassette instead of to the anatomic region of interest, which increases scatter and degrades image contrast. The discriminating check is whether the collimated field edges are visible on the radiograph and whether they match the prescribed anatomy. If the field is larger than the region of interest, collimation technique requires correction.

A third error is the misuse of AEC. Operators who do not understand chamber selection may produce inconsistent density, particularly in thoracic radiography where the chambers overlie the lung field instead of the heart base. The corrective action is training on chamber selection for each view, with reference to the equipment manual and technique charts [principles of conventional radiography and fluoroscopy](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8465489/).

## Limitations of Current Evidence

The evidence base for veterinary radiation safety practices is limited by low survey response rates and self-reported data. The fluoroscopy survey achieved a 6% response rate, which raises the possibility of response bias [self-reported radiation safety behaviors among veterinary specialists](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34388017/). A separate survey found that only 65.5% of academic institutions and 30.0% of private practices mandated radiation safety training, and many specialists underestimated the cancer risk associated with veterinary imaging doses [survey of veterinary specialists regarding radiation safety knowledge](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29641330/).

Expert opinion still differs on the appropriate use of dosimetry thresholds for veterinary personnel. Human medical benchmarks are often applied by analogy, but the dose distributions, patient sizes, and examination volumes in veterinary practice differ substantially. The relationship between occupational dose and stochastic risk in veterinary settings has not been quantified with the same precision as in human medicine. Until better data exist, facilities should adopt conservative benchmarks and document their rationale.

## Referral, Consultation, and Reporting

Referral to a veterinary radiologist is warranted when image quality problems persist despite equipment checks and technique adjustment, when a facility is establishing a new radiation safety program, or when fluoroscopy protocols require optimization. The American College of Veterinary Radiology maintains resources on diagnostic imaging practice and safety standards [ACVR professional resources](https://acvr.org/). For facilities seeking structured program evaluation, key performance indicators such as dosimetry outliers, retake rates, and training completion rates can be tracked and benchmarked over time [key performance indicators for radiation safety programs](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27356165/).

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. Reportable events typically include exposures that exceed regulatory limits, equipment failures that cause unintended exposure, and lost or damaged dosimeters. Facilities should maintain a written protocol for incident documentation and know the reporting threshold for their jurisdiction before an event occurs. When a dosimeter reading cannot be explained, the dosimetry service provider and the radiation safety officer should be consulted promptly.

| Observation | Likely Cause | Discriminating Check |
|---|---|---|
| Repeated overexposure across patients | AEC malfunction or incorrect chamber selection | Compare AEC output against manual technique on a phantom |
| Staff dosimeter above investigation level | Positioning error or apron defect | Review positioning logs, fluoroscopically inspect apron |
| Poor image contrast despite correct technique | Excessive collimation or grid misalignment | Verify grid lines and collimation field on radiograph |
| Inconsistent density on same view | Chamber selection error | Confirm chamber position relative to anatomy |
| Unexplained dosimeter reading | Dosimeter worn outside controlled area | Interview staff on dosimeter placement and storage |

## Frequently Asked Questions

### How can I improve radiation safety when only basic protective equipment is available?

Prioritize distance and time before shielding. Position yourself at least 2 metres from the primary beam when possible, use manual restraint only when chemical restraint is contraindicated, and collimate tightly to the region of interest. If lead aprons are the only shielding available, wear them consistently and stand behind a mobile lead barrier when one exists. Hand and eye protection are frequently neglected even by specialists, despite widespread awareness of radiation risks, so acquiring lead gloves and leaded glasses should be a budget priority over newer imaging equipment ([self-reported radiation safety behaviors among veterinary specialists](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34388017/)). Adjust machine parameters to the lowest acceptable exposure settings, since a substantial minority of operators never do so ([survey of veterinary specialists regarding radiation safety knowledge](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29641330/)).

### What records must I keep for radiation safety compliance?

Maintain a radiation safety manual, training logs with dates and topics, equipment quality control records, personal dosimetry reports, and an incident register for overexposures or near misses. Review dosimetry results at least quarterly and investigate any reading that exceeds your facility's investigation level. Document corrective actions taken after incidents, including equipment servicing and staff retraining. Objective performance indicators, such as the percentage of staff with current training and the number of unreviewed dosimetry reports, allow you to track program effectiveness over time instead of simply filing paperwork ([key performance indicators in radiation safety programs](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27356165/)). Keep these records for the period required by your regional authority, which may exceed the employment duration of individual staff members.

### How do I justify a requested radiographic study to a concerned owner?

Explain that the diagnostic benefit of a properly indicated radiograph outweighs the small stochastic risk, and that the dose from a single veterinary study is typically low. Note that professional bodies maintain that effective doses used in veterinary practice are generally considered to carry minimal increased cancer risk, though this belief is not universal among specialists ([survey of veterinary specialists regarding radiation safety knowledge](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29641330/)). Describe the specific clinical question the study will answer, what management change would follow, and why alternative imaging such as ultrasound is less appropriate in this case. Offer sedation to avoid repeat exposures from motion artefact. Document the discussion in the medical record, including the owner's consent.

### What should I do if a staff member's dosimeter shows an unexpected reading?

First verify the reading is real and not a monitoring artefact, such as a badge left near the x-ray unit or worn outside the facility. Review the individual's work schedule, the procedures performed, and whether protective equipment was used correctly. Reconstruct the exposure scenario and estimate the likely dose. If the reading exceeds your investigation level, suspend the individual from fluoroscopic or radiographic duties until the cause is identified. Retrain on positioning, collimation, and shielding before allowing a return to work. Report the event to your radiation safety officer and, if required by local regulations, to the regulatory authority. Track the event in your incident register and review whether similar events have occurred previously.

### How does radiation safety differ for equine versus small animal practice?

Equine radiography typically involves higher exposure factors and portable or ceiling-mounted units, so beam-on time and source-to-skin distance require more deliberate management. The patient is usually standing and may move, increasing the likelihood of repeat exposures. Use sedation protocols appropriate to the procedure and species, and position the x-ray tube so the primary beam is directed away from staff. Handheld units for equine distal limb work require strict adherence to the manufacturer's scatter profile and the operator must wear full protective attire. Large animal practitioners should consult species-specific professional guidance, as positioning aids and restraint techniques differ substantially from small animal practice ([MSD Veterinary Manual](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/)).

### How can I persuade my practice to fund better radiation safety equipment?

Frame the request around staff protection, regulatory compliance, and reduced repeat examinations. Present dosimetry trends and any near-miss incidents as evidence of current risk. Compare the cost of leaded glasses, thyroid shields, and a mobile barrier against the cumulative cost of staff turnover, workers' compensation claims, and regulatory fines. Reference professional body resources that outline expected safety standards for veterinary imaging facilities ([American College of Veterinary Radiology resources](https://acvr.org/)). Propose a phased purchase plan, starting with the highest-yield items such as leaded eyewear for fluoroscopy operators, and offer to implement a training session on proper equipment use as part of the investment.

## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

* [MRI Monitoring of Brain Tumor Response to Therapy in Dogs](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/mri-monitoring-brain-tumor-response-therapy-dogs)
* [Ultrasound-Guided Drainage of Abscesses in Small Animals](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/ultrasound-guided-drainage-abscesses-small-animals)
* [Radiographic Monitoring of Total Hip Replacement in Dogs](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/radiographic-monitoring-total-hip-replacement-dogs)


## References and Further Reading

- [Self-reported radiation safety behaviors among veterinary specialists and residents performing fluoroscopic procedures on small animals.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34388017/). 2021.
- [Survey of veterinary specialists regarding their knowledge of radiation safety and the availability of radiation safety training.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29641330/). 2018.
- [Key Performance Indicators in the Evaluation of the Quality of Radiation Safety Programs.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27356165/). 2016.
- [Invited review: study design considerations for clinical research in veterinary radiology and radiation oncology.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23578318/). 2013.
- [Principles of conventional radiography and fluoroscopy.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8465489/). 1993.
- [Adverse events due to unnecessary radiation exposure in medical imaging reported in Finland.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32088064/). 2020.
- [American College of Veterinary Radiology Resources](https://acvr.org/). American College of Veterinary Radiology.
- [MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/). MSD Veterinary Manual.
- [American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools). American Veterinary Medical Association.

## Related Articles

- [Technique Charts for Veterinary Radiography: Optimization and Safety](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/technique-charts-veterinary-radiography-optimization-safety)
- [Contrast Radiography in Veterinary Practice: Indications and Protocols](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/contrast-radiography-veterinary-practice-indications-protocols)
- [Thoracic Radiography in Equine Practice: Technique and Interpretation](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/thoracic-radiography-equine-practice-technique-interpretation)
- [Musculoskeletal Radiography in Small Animals: Positioning and Interpretation](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/musculoskeletal-radiography-small-animals-positioning-interpretation)
- [Radiographic Monitoring of Orthopedic Implants in Veterinary Practice](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/diagnostic-imaging/radiographic-monitoring-orthopedic-implants-veterinary)

> This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.