# Veterinary IV Catheter Placement and Care ## Key Takeaways - Peripheral IV catheterization, while common, carries risks of infection and thrombosis due to the breach of the skin barrier and foreign body presence, leading to local inflammation and potential bacterial adhesion, particularly after 48-72 hours. - Catheter selection prioritizes the largest gauge that fits the vessel without compromising flow, with distal limb veins (cephalic, saphenous) being preferred in dogs and cats, and the ventral coccygeal vein in lizards, necessitating meticulous aseptic technique during placement and preparation. - Topical anesthetic cream (EMLA) applied for 60 minutes significantly reduces behavioral reactions to venipuncture in dogs, though its utility is limited in emergency situations. - Rabbits are particularly susceptible to venous air embolism due to their small size and systemic sensitivity, requiring rigorous air exclusion from fluid lines and hub manipulation. - Catheter complications such as phlebitis (warmth, erythema, cord-like vein), thrombosis (loss of patency), and extravasation (swelling) necessitate prompt removal and appropriate site management, with bacterial colonization rates of 39.6% observed in catheters removed for clinical issues. - Competency in catheter placement improves with deliberate practice, and limiting failed attempts to two before seeking assistance from a more experienced clinician is crucial to minimize patient trauma and preserve venous integrity. --- Peripheral intravenous catheterization is among the most frequently performed procedures in veterinary practice, yet it carries measurable risks of infection, thrombosis, and patient morbidity. This article provides a procedural reference for veterinary students and early-career clinicians covering catheter selection, site preparation, placement technique, maintenance protocols, and complication recognition across companion animal species. It answers the practical questions of how to place a catheter reliably, how to keep it functional, and how to identify when it must be removed. Central venous catheterization is excluded from this scope. The evidence base for veterinary catheter practices is uneven. Some questions, such as the value of topical anesthesia in dogs, have been addressed by prospective trials. Others, including optimal dwell times and dressing protocols, rely on extrapolation from human medicine or single-center observational data. Where the literature is limited, this article states the uncertainty explicitly and directs the reader to professional standards published by bodies such as the [Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons](https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/undergraduate-education/) and the [American Veterinary Medical Association](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools). ## At a Glance | Parameter | Clinical Decision Point | |---|---| | Catheter gauge | Select the largest gauge that fits the vessel without occluding flow, smaller patients require smaller gauges | | Catheter site | Distal limb veins preferred in dogs and cats, ventral coccygeal vein in lizards | | Skin preparation | Clip, surgical scrub, and aseptic technique, minimize hair regrowth contamination | | Dwell time | Remove at first sign of complication, routine replacement intervals are not well established in veterinary medicine | | Colonization risk | Higher with junior or student placement and with steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use in dogs | | Topical anesthesia | EMLA cream applied for 60 minutes reduces behavioral reaction in dogs | | Complication monitoring | Check for swelling, heat, pain, discharge, and catheter patency at minimum every 8 hours | | Species-specific risk | Rabbits may be especially susceptible to venous air embolism | ## Physiology of Venous Access and Catheter-Tissue Interaction Placement of a peripheral catheter creates an intentional breach of the skin barrier and a foreign body within the venous lumen. The vein wall responds to mechanical injury with local inflammation, platelet aggregation, and thrombus formation at the catheter tip and along the intima. This thrombotic response is the basis for the most common mechanical complications: loss of patency, perivascular leakage, and phlebitis. The inflammatory response also provides a nidus for bacterial adhesion, particularly when the catheter remains in place beyond 48 to 72 hours. The bacterial colonization of indwelling catheters follows a predictable sequence. Skin flora at the insertion site migrate along the external catheter surface, while hub manipulation introduces organizms into the lumen. A prospective study of 182 hospitalized dogs found a bacterial colonization rate of 39.6% among catheters removed in response to clinical complications, with *Acinetobacter* spp. the most frequently isolated organizm at 21.7% of positive cultures. The same study identified the experience level of the person placing the catheter and concurrent use of steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs as significant factors associated with colonization. These findings support two practical conclusions: aseptic technique at placement is a modifiable risk factor, and any catheter that triggers clinical concern should be removed and cultured instead of salvaged. ## Training and Competency in Catheter Placement Catheter placement is a psychomotor skill that improves with deliberate practice. Traditional teaching has relied on plastic mannequin arms, but these models lack the tissue variability of live patients. A randomized study comparing computer-based virtual reality simulation with traditional laboratory instruction in 163 nursing and medical students found no significant difference in skill acquisition between the two methods, suggesting that structured practice on any realistic model is more important than the specific modality. Veterinary nursing students in Japan achieved measurable success rates after practicing on non-invasive kits before performing the procedure on live dogs, with each student allowed up to three attempts per animal. The [RCVS Day One Competences](https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/undergraduate-education/) require veterinary graduates to perform basic clinical procedures competently, and catheter placement falls squarely within this expectation. The practical implication for the student is that repeated attempts on a single patient are counterproductive. Two failed attempts should prompt a pause, reassessment of vein selection, and consideration of asking a more experienced colleague to attempt the placement. This threshold protects the patient from unnecessary tissue trauma and preserves the vein for subsequent attempts. ## Pharmacologic Adjuncts to Placement Pain associated with catheter placement is a welfare consideration and a practical obstacle in fractions patients. Topical eutectic mixture of local anesthetics (EMLA) cream, containing lidocaine and prilocaine, can reduce the behavioral reaction to venipuncture. A prospective, randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled trial in 202 client-owned dogs demonstrated that EMLA cream applied for 60 minutes significantly lowered reaction scores compared with placebo, while a 30-minute application did not. The practical protocol is to apply the cream under an occlusive dressing at the intended site during the pre-procedure period, then wipe it off immediately before skin preparation. The 60-minute requirement limits its utility in emergency presentations but makes it a reasonable standard for elective procedures and hospitalized patients with scheduled blood sampling. ## Species-Specific Considerations ### Rabbits and Air Embolism Risk Rabbits present a particular hazard during catheter placement and maintenance. Their small body size relative to catheter dead space, combined with an apparent systemic sensitivity to intravascular air, makes them vulnerable to venous air embolism. A case series describing two pet rabbits with computed tomography-confirmed iatrogenic venous air embolism reported that one rabbit died from immediate cardiopulmonary arrest while the other survived with early detection and intervention. The air was presumably introduced through indwelling IV catheters. This evidence, while limited to two cases, supports rigorous attention to removing all air from extension sets, using primed T-connectors, and avoiding open hub manipulation in rabbits. Any sudden deterioration in a catheterized rabbit should prompt immediate assessment for air embolism. ### Reptiles Peripheral catheterization in lizards is feasible and carries a low complication rate when performed at the appropriate site. A retrospective review of 21 client-owned lizards at a university teaching hospital found that all catheters were placed in the ventral coccygeal vein via a ventral approach, with no complications reported in the short or long term. The most common indications were fluid therapy, anesthesia or surgery, and contrast-enhanced computed tomography. Sedation was used in fewer than one-third of placements, indicating that manual restraint is often sufficient in these species. The ventral coccygeal vein is preferred because it is superficial, accessible, and does not interfere with ambulation or the animal's ability to assume a normal posture. ## Catheter Selection and Site Choice Catheter gauge selection follows a simple principle: use the largest gauge that the vessel can accommodate without occluding flow. In dogs and cats, the cephalic vein is the most common first-choice site, followed by the saphenous and medial saphenous veins. The jugular vein is reserved for patients requiring high-volume resuscitation or when peripheral sites are exhausted, though it carries additional risks of hematoma formation and patient discomfort. In lizards, the ventral coccygeal vein is the standard site. The [MSD Veterinary Manual](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/) provides species-specific guidance on vessel anatomy and catheter selection that should be consulted before attempting placement in less familiar species. Over-the-needle catheters are the standard choice for peripheral access in veterinary patients. The catheter material, typically polyurethane or polytetrafluoroethylene, influences thrombogenicity and stiffness, with polyurethane generally favored for its combination of flexibility and resistance to kinking. The stylet should never be reinserted into a catheter that has been partially advanced, as this can shear the catheter tip and create an embolus. ## Patient Assessment and Site Preparation Before catheter placement, evaluate the patient for factors that alter vessel selection, catheter size, and technique. Assess hydration status, perfusion parameters, and the intended duration of use. A patient requiring aggressive fluid resuscitation needs a larger gauge catheter than one receiving intermittent bolus medications. Coagulation status matters. Patients with thrombocytopenia or coagulopathy warrant fewer attempts and firm, prolonged pressure after removal. The chosen vein must be palpated and visually inspected. In dogs and cats, the cephalic vein is the default for most placements, with the saphenous vein used when the cephalic is compromised or when hindlimb access is preferred. The lateral saphenous vein in dogs and the medial saphenous in cats are common alternatives. In rabbits, the marginal ear vein and lateral saphenous vein are used, but the cephalic vein is often difficult to access. In reptiles, the ventral coccygeal vein is the most frequently used site, as documented in a retrospective series of client-owned lizards where all catheters were placed via a ventral approach to this vessel [Liles et al., retrospective evaluation of intravenous catheterization in client-owned lizards](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36852711/). Clip the hair over the vein generously, at least twice the length of the catheter hub assembly. Aseptic preparation with chlorhexidine or povidone-iodine should follow, allowing contact time per label instructions. Do not palpate the vein after final antiseptic application without sterile gloves or a sterile finger cot. In patients with dark pigmentation or thick skin, transillumination or ultrasound guidance may be needed to identify the vessel. ## Placement Technique Position the patient in sternal or lateral recumbency, depending on the site and patient temperament. Restraint must be firm but not obstructive to venous return. For the cephalic vein, an assistant occludes the vein proximally while the operator extends the limb. For the lateral saphenous, the dependent hindlimb is extended caudally with the vein occluded at the stifle. Advance the stylet-catheter assembly at a 10 to 30 degree angle to the skin, depending on vessel depth. A flash of blood in the chamber confirms venipuncture. Reduce the angle to near parallel and advance the assembly an additional 1 to 2 mm to ensure the catheter tip is within the lumen. Advance the catheter off the stylet with a smooth, continuous motion. The stylet must not be reinserted once withdrawn. Secure the hub immediately to prevent dislodgement. Failure modes at this stage include transfixion of the vessel, catheter advancement into the wall, and kinking of the catheter within the vessel. If the catheter does not thread smoothly, do not force it. Withdraw the assembly, apply pressure, and attempt a fresh site or a more proximal location on the same vessel. Multiple failed attempts at one site increase the risk of hematoma and thrombosis, and they also increase the risk of bacterial colonization. A study of 182 dogs found that the staff member performing catheterization was significantly associated with catheter colonization, with junior staff and students having higher risk than senior clinicians [Guzmán Ramos et al., incidence of and associated factors for bacterial colonization of intravenous catheters](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29602241/). This finding supports limiting attempts and escalating to more experienced personnel after two failed sticks. ## Securing and Dressing The catheter must be secured against mechanical dislodgement and contamination. Use tape butterflies or a commercial securement device, then apply a light dressing that allows visual inspection of the insertion site. In dogs and cats, a self-adherent elastic wrap over a gauze base is standard. In reptiles, the dressing must accommodate the tail or limb without restricting movement, the ventral coccygeal site in lizards requires careful taping that does not occlude the hemipenes or vent [Liles et al., retrospective evaluation of intravenous catheterization in client-owned lizards](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36852711/). The dressing should be changed when soiled, wet, or loosened. Routine scheduled dressing changes without clinical indication are not supported by evidence and increase manipulation of the catheter, which raises infection risk. The insertion site should be assessed at least twice daily for swelling, erythema, discharge, or pain. ## Catheter Care and Maintenance Checklist | Check | Frequency | What It Detects | Action If Abnormal | |-------|-----------|-----------------|---------------------| | Dressing integrity | Every 4 to 6 hours | Loosening, soiling, wetness | Replace dressing, inspect site | | Insertion site inspection | Every 4 to 6 hours | Erythema, swelling, discharge, pain | Remove catheter if phlebitis or infection suspected | | Catheter patency | Before each use | Resistance to flush, inability to aspirate | Do not force flush, assess for thrombosis or extravasation | | Fluid line connections | Every 4 to 6 hours | Disconnection, leakage, air bubbles | Reconnect aseptically, purge air | | Limb or tail distal to site | Every 8 hours | Swelling, coldness, discoloration | Remove catheter, evaluate for thrombosis or extravasation | | Patient temperature and attitude | Every 8 hours | Fever, lethargy, pain | Consider catheter-related infection in differential diagnosis | Flush protocols vary by institution. A saline or heparinized saline flush before and after each medication administration is common. The flush volume should be at least twice the dead space of the catheter and extension set. In small patients, including neonatal kittens, rabbits, and reptiles, the flush volume must be reduced to avoid volume overload. ## Monitoring and Complication Management Complications of peripheral IV catheters include phlebitis, thrombosis, extravasation, hematoma, infection, and air embolism. The bacterial colonization rate of catheters removed in response to clinical complications was 39.6% in one study of hospitalized dogs, with Acinetobacter spp. the most frequently isolated organizm [Guzmán Ramos et al., incidence of and associated factors for bacterial colonization of intravenous catheters](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29602241/). This rate underscores the need for strict aseptic technique and prompt removal of any catheter that triggers a clinical concern. Phlebitis presents as warmth, erythema, and a palpable cord along the vein. It is a clinical diagnosis. Remove the catheter and apply warm compresses. Thrombosis presents as loss of patency with a firm, distended vein. Extravasation presents as progressive swelling around the site with loss of the fluid line. Stop the infusion, remove the catheter, and apply cold compresses initially, then warm compresses after 24 hours. For vesicant drugs, specific protocols for tissue infiltration should be followed. Air embolism is a rare but potentially fatal complication. Rabbits may be especially susceptible due to their small body size and systemic sensitivity, as described in a case series of two pet rabbits with CT-confirmed venous air embolism [Moschetto et al., computed tomographic identification and management of iatrogenic venous air embolism in two pet rabbits](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41582865/). One rabbit died of cardiopulmonary arrest, the other survived with early detection and intervention. Prevention focuses on purging all air from fluid lines, using Luer-lock connections, and never allowing a fluid bag to run dry. In small patients, even small volumes of air are clinically significant. | Complication | Clinical Signs | Immediate Action | Follow-Up | |--------------|----------------|------------------|-----------| | Phlebitis | Warmth, erythema, cord-like vein | Remove catheter, warm compress | Monitor for progression to infection | | Thrombosis | Loss of patency, firm vein | Remove catheter, do not flush forcibly | Consider alternate site, evaluate coagulation if recurrent | | Extravasation | Swelling, coolness, pain at site | Stop infusion, remove catheter | Cold compress for 24 hours, then warm, document drug and volume | | Hematoma | Bruising, swelling after placement or removal | Apply firm pressure for 5 minutes | Reassess before reattempting same vessel | | Catheter-related infection | Fever, purulent discharge, cellulitis | Remove catheter, culture tip if indicated | Systemic antibiotics per clinical judgment | | Air embolism | Acute dyspnea, collapse, cardiac arrest | Place patient in left lateral recumbency, administer oxygen | Emergency resuscitation per protocol | ## Documentation Document the catheter placement in the medical record immediately after placement. Include the date and time, the vein used, catheter gauge and length, number of attempts, any complications, and the person who placed the catheter. Record the flush solution and volume. During hospitalization, document each assessment of the insertion site, dressing changes, and any complications. This documentation supports continuity of care and provides a basis for investigating suspected catheter-related infections. The duration of catheter dwell time should be guided by clinical need and site condition, not by an arbitrary schedule. A catheter that remains functional and shows no signs of inflammation may stay in place for several days. A catheter that triggers any concern should be removed and replaced at a new site. The decision to replace should be documented with the reason. ## Recognized Complications and Early Detection Catheter failure and phlebitis are the most common complications in small animal practice. A prospective study of 182 dogs found that 39.6% of catheters removed for clinical complications yielded positive bacterial cultures, with Acinetobacter spp. isolated most frequently at 21.7% ([incidence of bacterial colonization of intravenous catheters in dogs](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29602241/)). The same study reported that 89.5%, 78%, and 59.4% of catheters remained in place at 24, 48, and 72 hours respectively, indicating that catheter survival declines steadily with dwell time. Phlebitis presents as warmth, erythema, pain on palpation, or a palpable cord along the vein. Detect it early by palpating the vein proximal to the catheter tip at each patient assessment, also at the insertion site. Thrombophlebitis may follow, producing venous distension distal to the occlusion and poor flushback. Perivascular leakage presents as progressive swelling around the site, often with a palpable fluid pocket and reduced efficacy of administered drugs. Extravasation of irritant drugs such as calcium gluconate, hypertonic saline, or certain chemotherapeutic agents requires immediate cessation of infusion and site management. Catheter occlusion can result from a kink in the tubing, a clot at the tip, or the tip resting against the vessel wall. Discriminate between these by attempting gentle aspiration: blood return with resistance suggests clot, whereas no blood return with easy flush suggests wall apposition or malposition. Never force a flush against resistance, as this can dislodge a clot or rupture the vessel. Air embolism is a rare but potentially fatal complication. Rabbits appear especially susceptible because of their small body size and unique systemic sensitivity, and iatrogenic venous air embolism has been confirmed by computed tomography in pet rabbits after routine catheter use ([CT identification and management of venous air embolism in rabbits](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41582865/)). Prevent it by priming all lines completely, using Luer-lock connections, and removing air from syringes before injection. Suspect air embolism with acute cardiorespiratory collapse during or shortly after a flush or injection. Catheter-related bloodstream infection is difficult to detect early because fever and lethargy are nonspecific. Monitor the insertion site daily for purulent discharge or tracking erythema, and record body temperature trends. Remove any catheter with suspected infection and submit the tip for culture if systemic signs are present. ## Common Errors and Corrective Actions | Observation | Likely Cause | Discriminating Check | |---|---|---| | Blood flashback but catheter will not advance | Tip caught on valve or vessel wall | Reduce angle to near parallel, rotate catheter 90 degrees, advance with a twisting motion | | No flashback despite apparent venipuncture | Vein rolled, needle passed through both walls | Withdraw slowly while watching the hub, redirect only after full withdrawal to skin | | Flush is easy but aspiration yields no blood | Tip against vessel wall or valve | Reposition limb, gently withdraw catheter 1 to 2 mm, reattempt aspiration | | Progressive swelling during infusion | Perivascular placement or dislodgement | Stop infusion, palpate site, attempt aspiration, remove and replace if uncertain | | Pain on flush with no swelling | Phlebitis or tip irritation | Palpate vein proximal to site, consider catheter removal and site rotation | | Catheter dislodged from vessel despite dressing | Inadequate securement or patient interference | Check tape integrity, measure exposed catheter length, replace if migrated | Students and junior staff most often fail at vein immobilisation, angle control, and advancing the catheter off the stylet. The most frequent error is advancing the stylet further after flashback, which pierces the dorsal vessel wall. Corrective training should emphasize stopping all forward motion of the stylet at flashback, dropping the angle, and advancing only the catheter. A second common error is inadequate skin tenting in patients with loose skin, which allows the vein to roll. Practice on models before live animals improves success, and structured training programs that combine model practice with supervised live placement produce measurable gains in student competency ([survey on intravenous catheter placement success in dogs by veterinary nursing students](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41630762/)). ## Limitations of the Evidence The evidence base for veterinary catheter care is uneven. Most complication data come from dogs, with limited prospective work in cats and almost none in exotic species. The lizard data available derive from a single teaching hospital with 21 cases, and although no complications were recorded in that series, the small sample size precludes generalization ([retrospective evaluation of intravenous catheterization in lizards](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36852711/)). Similarly, the rabbit air embolism literature consists of case reports, which establish that the complication occurs but cannot define its incidence. Expert opinion still differs on catheter dwell time. Some clinicians advocate routine replacement every 72 hours, while others argue for replacement only when clinically indicated. The bacterial colonization data showing declining catheter survival over time support closer monitoring instead of a fixed replacement schedule, but no controlled trial has resolved the question. Regional guidance also varies, and clinicians should consult their local professional body for practice standards ([AVMA practice resources](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools)). ## Escalation and Reporting Refer or escalate when a complication exceeds the scope of routine management. Immediate specialist consultation is warranted for suspected venous air embolism, progressive thrombophlebitis, suspected catheter-related bacteremia with systemic signs, or extravasation of a vesicant drug. Laboratory involvement is indicated when culture of the catheter tip or blood is needed to guide antimicrobial therapy. Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. Reportable events may include suspected adverse reactions to administered drugs or devices, and some regions require notification of significant nosocomial infection clusters. Clinicians should know their local requirements through their veterinary board or national professional association ([RCVS day one competences](https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/undergraduate-education/) and [WOAH terrestrial animal health standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) provide relevant professional and animal health frameworks). When in doubt about whether an event is reportable, contact the relevant authority before the patient is discharged. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How Should I Manage Catheter Placement When Ideal Equipment Is Unavailable? When standard aseptic supplies are limited, prioritize infection control over cosmetic dressing quality. Use the smallest gauge catheter that will meet therapeutic needs, and maintain strict hand hygiene and skin antisepsis with available agents such as chlorhexidine or povidone-iodine. If commercial securement devices are absent, use sterile gauze and tape in a modified Chinese finger-trap pattern, ensuring the hub is visible for inspection. Replace any dressing that becomes wet, soiled, or loose. Bacterial colonisation of catheters is common, with one study reporting a 39.6% colonisation rate among catheters removed for clinical complications, so heightened monitoring is warranted when resources are constrained. Document any deviations from standard protocol in the medical record. ### What Are the Practical Considerations for Catheter Placement in Exotic or Uncommon Species? For reptiles, the ventral coccygeal vein is the most commonly used site, and placement may be performed without sedation in many patients. A retrospective review of 21 lizards found no complications associated with catheter placement, suggesting the procedure is well tolerated when anatomical landmarks are respected. Rabbits present a different concern: they may be especially susceptible to venous air embolism due to small body size and species-specific sensitivity, so meticulous technique to exclude air from the administration set is critical. In any exotic species, confirm the catheter position with a flush and aspiration before attaching fluids, and use species-appropriate securement that accommodates skin fragility and mobility. ### How Do I Decide When to Replace a Catheter Versus Attempt Salvage? Replace the catheter when there is evidence of phlebitis, thrombosis, leakage, or suspected contamination. Localized swelling without pain or heat may respond to splinting and reduced flow rates, but any catheter with purulent discharge, palpable cord, or fever of unknown origin should be removed immediately. The cumulative proportion of catheters remaining in place at 72 hours was 59.4% in one study, indicating that many catheters will require replacement during a prolonged hospital stay. When replacing, use a different vein whenever possible, preferably on the contralateral limb. Culture the catheter tip if there is clinical evidence of infection, and institute systemic antimicrobial therapy based on culture results and current formulary guidance. ### What Should I Document After Catheter Placement and During Maintenance? Record the date and time of placement, catheter gauge and length, vein used, number of attempts, and the name of the person who placed it. Document the patient's demeanour during placement, any sedation or local anesthetic used, and the type of dressing applied. During maintenance, record daily assessments of the catheter site, including presence of swelling, erythema, pain, or discharge, and note the volume and type of fluids or drugs administered through the line. The [RCVS Day One Competences](https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/undergraduate-education/) include maintaining accurate clinical records, which supports continuity of care and medicolegal protection. Document the reason for catheter removal and the condition of the site at that time. ### How Should I Explain Catheter Complications to a Client or Supervisor? Use clear, factual language that describes the finding, the likely cause, and the planned response. For a client, avoid alarmist terms and instead explain that catheter-related inflammation or blockage is a recognized event that occurs in a proportion of hospitalized animals, and that prompt removal and site care are standard management. For a supervisor, present the timeline of events, the clinical signs observed, and any actions already taken, such as catheter removal or site culture. Reference the [MSD Veterinary Manual](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/) as a source of background information on catheter complications if the client seeks further reading. Frame the conversation around patient welfare and the steps being taken to prevent recurrence. ### How Can I Reduce Catheter Costs Without Compromising Patient Safety? Cost reduction should focus on avoiding unnecessary catheter placement and extending dwell time safely, not on using inferior materials. Ensure the catheter is truly indicated before placement, and remove it as soon as it is no longer needed. Use the smallest volume of flush solution required to maintain patency, and avoid routine replacement of catheters that are functioning well without clinical signs of complication. Training staff to place catheters competently reduces the cost of repeated attempts, simulation-based training has been shown to be an effective alternative to traditional methods. The [AVMA practice resources](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools) offer guidance on efficient practice management. Weigh the cost of a catheter against the cost of treating a catheter-related infection, which can be substantial. ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Veterinary Case Presentation: Structure and Delivery](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/veterinary-case-presentation-structure-delivery) * [Veterinary Communication in the Workplace: Team Dynamics](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/veterinary-communication-workplace-team-dynamics) * [Monitoring Plans for Hospitalized Veterinary Patients](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/monitoring-plans-hospitalized-veterinary-patients) ## References and Further Reading - [Survey on the success rate of intravenous catheter placement in dogs by veterinary nursing students.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41630762/). 2025. - [Incidence of and associated factors for bacterial colonization of intravenous catheters removed from dogs in response to clinical complications.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29602241/). 2018. - [Retrospective evaluation of intravenous catheterization in client-owned lizards at a veterinary teaching hospital: 21 cases (2018-2021).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36852711/). 2023. - [Computed Tomographic Identification and Management of Iatrogenic Venous Air Embolism in Two Pet Rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41582865/). 2026. - [Intravenous catheter training system: computer-based education versus traditional learning methods.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12842753/). 2003. - [The clinical efficacy of EMLA cream for intravenous catheter placement in client-owned dogs.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30077554/). 2018. - [RCVS Day One Competences](https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/undergraduate-education/). RCVS. - [MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/). MSD Veterinary Manual. - [American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools). American Veterinary Medical Association. ## Related Articles - [IV Catheter Placement in Dogs: A Step-by-Step Guide](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/iv-catheter-placement-dogs-step-by-step-guide) - [Peripheral Venous Catheter Placement in Veterinary Patients](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/peripheral-venous-catheter-placement-veterinary) - [Urinary Catheter Placement in Female Dogs: A Practical Approach](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/urinary-catheter-placement-female-dogs-practical-approach) - [Veterinary Bandage Care Instructions: Educating Clients for Optimal Healing](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/veterinary-bandage-care-instructions-educating-clients-optimal-healing) - [Bandaging Materials in Veterinary Practice: A Guide to Selection and Use](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/bandaging-materials-veterinary-practice-guide-selection-use) > This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.