# Endotracheal Intubation Procedure in Veterinary Emergencies


## Key Takeaways

- Emergency endotracheal intubation prioritizes rapid airway securing in unstable patients (hypoxemia, airway obstruction, arrest) using Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI) principles adapted from human medicine. Preparation, preoxygenation, induction, neuromuscular blockade, and confirmation are critical steps.
- Capnography is the gold standard for confirming endotracheal tube placement, providing a waveform and end-tidal CO2 value, with auscultation and fogging serving as adjuncts. Absence of a capnograph waveform after six breaths strongly suggests esophageal intubation.
- Species-specific anatomy dictates technique: canine larynges are generally more accessible, while feline larynges are smaller and prone to trauma and laryngospasm, often benefiting from topical lidocaine. Brachycephalic breeds present unique challenges due to anatomical variations.
- The "cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate" scenario necessitates immediate conversion to a surgical airway, such as cricothyrotomy or tracheostomy, to prevent irreversible hypoxia.
- Maintaining skill proficiency through annual practice, ideally simulation-based, is recommended for critical airway management skills, mirroring human pediatric emergency medicine standards.
- Common errors include esophageal intubation, inadequate suction preparation, and lack of a clear rescue plan for difficult airways. Corrective actions involve meticulous preparation, utilizing advanced suction techniques, and adhering to a predetermined number of intubation attempts before proceeding to surgical intervention.

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Emergency endotracheal intubation in dogs and cats is a high-stakes, time-critical procedure that differs fundamentally from elective anesthetic induction. The emergency patient may present with hypoxemia, hypercapnia, upper airway obstruction, cardiopulmonary arrest, or profound hemodynamic instability, and the intubator must secure the airway while anticipating regurgitation, cervical trauma, or oropharyngeal pathology. This article provides a procedural framework for veterinary students and practitioners, covering preparation, rapid sequence induction, technique selection, confirmation of tube placement, and troubleshooting of the difficult airway. It focuses exclusively on the emergency setting and does not address elective anesthetic protocols.

The clinical question this reference answers is direct: how does the clinician move from a destabilized patient to a secured, verified airway with minimal delay and maximal safety? The approach presented here integrates principles of rapid sequence intubation adapted from human emergency medicine, species-specific anatomy, and practical equipment strategies. Where the evidence base is drawn from human or experimental literature, this is stated explicitly so the reader can weigh its applicability to canine and feline patients.

## At a Glance

| Parameter | Decision or Fact |
|---|---|
| Indications | Apnea, severe hypoxemia, upper airway obstruction, cardiopulmonary arrest, loss of protective reflexes, need for positive pressure ventilation |
| Preparation priority | Assemble and test all equipment before handling the patient, oxygenate before attempting laryngoscopy |
| Rapid sequence induction | Combines preoxygenation, induction agent, rapidly acting neuromuscular blocker, and cricoid pressure where applicable |
| Tube size selection | Based on body weight and breed, have one size larger and one size smaller immediately available |
| Confirmation of placement | Capnography is the most reliable method, auscultation and fogging are adjuncts, not substitutes |
| Difficult airway | Cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate situations require a surgical airway, either cricothyrotomy or tracheostomy |
| Skill maintenance | Annual practice is recommended for critical airway skills by senior emergency clinicians in human medicine |

## Physiology of the Emergency Airway

The emergency patient deteriorates along a predictable cascade. Hypoxemia develops when alveolar ventilation fails or when upper airway obstruction prevents gas flow. Hypercapnia follows when minute ventilation is inadequate. Both conditions worsen tissue oxygen delivery and can precipitate arrhythmias, hypotension, and cardiac arrest. Endotracheal intubation interrupts this cascade by providing a sealed conduit for positive pressure ventilation and by protecting the lower airway from aspiration of gastric contents, blood, or debris.

The protective reflexes that normally guard the airway, the cough reflex and laryngeal closure, are depressed in many emergency states. Severe traumatic brain injury, drug overdose, profound hypoxemia, and metabolic derangements all blunt these reflexes. Paradoxically, a patient with partial upper airway obstruction may retain strong laryngeal reflexes, making intubation more difficult and increasing the risk of laryngospasm during manipulation. The clinician must assess reflex status before choosing an induction approach.

Oxygenation reserve is the critical variable that determines how much time the intubator has. A healthy patient with normal functional residual capacity can tolerate 60 to 90 seconds of apnea before desaturation. The emergency patient with pulmonary edema, hemorrhage, or abdominal distension has reduced functional residual capacity and may desaturate within 20 to 30 seconds. Preoxygenation with 100% oxygen for three to five minutes, or eight vital capacity breaths where time is critical, extends this safe apnea period. This principle is drawn from human emergency airway management and applies directly to veterinary patients, though the smaller functional residual capacity of cats and small dogs shortens the margin further.

## Rapid Sequence Intubation

Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) is the standard approach for emergency airway control in human medicine and is directly adaptable to veterinary patients. The goal is to achieve intubating conditions quickly while minimizing the interval between loss of protective reflexes and tube placement. The sequence has six components: preparation, preoxygenation, induction, neuromuscular blockade, tube placement with cricoid pressure, and confirmation.

Preparation is the step most often rushed and most often regretted. The clinician should assemble the laryngoscope with a blade of appropriate length and a bright light source, endotracheal tubes in three sizes, a stylet, a syringe to inflate the cuff, ties or tape, and a suction device with a rigid tip. A functional suction unit is non-negotiable. In a comparative study of suction devices, an adult 8.0 endotracheal tube connected to a meconium aspirator cleared liquids of varying viscosity faster than a standard Yankauer instrument, a finding worth considering when preparing for a patient with blood or vomitus in the airway. The same study noted that the ETT-meconium aspirator set-up should be considered for difficult airways with copious secretions.

Induction agents for RSI must act rapidly and have minimal cardiovascular depression. The choice depends on the patient's hemodynamic status, and current formulary references must be consulted for specific doses. Neuromuscular blockade is induced immediately after the induction agent to prevent the patient from regaining consciousness before intubation is complete. The clinician must be prepared to ventilate by mask if intubation fails, and must have a plan for a surgical airway if mask ventilation also fails.

Cricoid pressure, applied to the cricoid cartilage to compress the esophagus against the cervical vertebrae, is used during RSI to reduce the risk of passive regurgitation. Its efficacy is debated in human literature, and its application in dogs and cats is complicated by species differences in laryngeal anatomy. The clinician should weigh the theoretical benefit against the risk of distorting the airway and making laryngoscopy more difficult.

## Species-Specific Considerations

The dog and cat differ in ways that materially affect emergency intubation. The canine larynx is relatively large and accessible, and most dogs can be intubated with direct laryngoscopy using a long blade. Brachycephalic breeds present specific challenges: the soft palate is elongated, the larynx is often collapsed or everted, and the trachea may be hypoplastic. These patients may require a smaller tube than body weight predicts, and the clinician should have multiple sizes ready.

The feline larynx is smaller and more fragile. The arytenoid cartilages are easily traumatized, and laryngospasm is a genuine risk, particularly in patients with upper respiratory infection or laryngeal pathology. Lidocaine applied topically to the larynx before intubation reduces this risk. The feline trachea narrows at the thoracic inlet, so a tube that passes the larynx may still meet resistance distally. Gentle advancement and a tube one size smaller than the laryngeal diameter are appropriate precautions.

The emergency setting adds further complexity. Cervical trauma may destabilize the trachea, and excessive manipulation can convert a partial injury into a complete transection. Patients with cervical masses or abscesses may have tracheal deviation that makes blind advancement hazardous. In these cases, the clinician should consider video-assisted laryngoscopy if available, or proceed directly to a surgical airway if the anatomy is too distorted for safe orotracheal intubation.

## Preparation and Equipment Selection

The emergency intubation kit must be assembled before the patient arrives or at the first recognition of impending airway compromise. A standardized kit reduces cognitive load during a crisis and ensures that no critical component is missing when seconds count. The kit should be checked at the start of each shift and after every use.

Essential components include endotracheal tubes (ETTs) in a range of sizes, two laryngoscopes with functioning bulbs or batteries, stylets, water-soluble lubricant, lidocaine spray or gel, suction with Yankauer tip and backup suction source, a resuscitation bag with appropriate mask, and a means of securing the tube. For cats, a 3.0 to 4.5 mm tube is typical, for dogs, sizes range from 5.0 to 12.0 mm depending on body weight and breed. Have two tubes of each size available, because the first may be contaminated or damaged during a difficult intubation.

The choice between cuffed and uncuffed tubes depends on patient size and clinical context. Cuffed tubes are preferred in most emergency settings because they permit positive pressure ventilation and reduce aspiration risk. Microcuff tubes are available for smaller patients and may reduce tracheal mucosal injury, but they require careful cuff pressure monitoring. In cats, the trachea narrows significantly at the thoracic inlet, so the cuff must sit proximal to this narrowing. Overinflation of the cuff in cats is a common cause of postoperative tracheal rupture.

Suction is the most frequently overlooked element of emergency airway preparation. A traditional Yankauer suction instrument is standard, but an adult 8.0 ETT connected to a meconium aspirator has been shown to clear liquids of varying viscosity faster than a Yankauer in a controlled comparison, including water, whole blood, and simulated emesis. This alternative set-up should be considered when the airway is likely to contain blood, secretions, or gastric contents.

## The Rapid Sequence Intubation Checklist

A cognitive aid improves performance during high-stakes procedures. The checklist below is designed to be run through in under 60 seconds immediately before drug administration and laryngoscopy. It is not a substitute for clinical judgment, but it structures the sequence so that no step is omitted under pressure.

| Checklist Item | Verification Point | Consequence If Missed |
|---|---|---|
| Airway equipment | ETTs sized and cuffs tested, laryngoscope light bright, stylet loaded | Failed intubation, repeated attempts, trauma |
| Suction | Connected, functional, backup available | Aspiration, obscured view, cannot intubate |
| Oxygenation | Preoxygenation complete, SpO2 target achieved or maximal effort made | Hypoxemia during apnea, cardiac arrest |
| Intravenous access | Patent catheter, flush test positive | No route for induction drugs or resuscitation |
| Induction drugs | Drawn up, labeled, doses calculated and checked | Wrong dose, delayed induction, prolonged struggle |
| Monitoring | ECG, SpO2, capnography or capnometry, blood pressure | Undetected arrhythmia, hypoxemia, hypotension |
| Personnel roles | Who intubates, who monitors, who administers drugs, who records | Confusion, delayed interventions, incomplete documentation |
| Rescue plan | Cricothyrotomy or tracheostomy kit confirmed present | Cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate scenario with no exit strategy |

The checklist should be run aloud by the team leader, with each item confirmed by the person responsible for that element. This distributes the cognitive burden and creates a shared mental model of the procedure. In solo practice, the checklist is run silently but systematically, and the same order is followed every time.

## The Intubation Algorithm for Difficult Airways

The algorithm below represents a decision framework for the emergency airway. It assumes that rapid sequence induction has been performed or is in progress and that the first attempt at laryngoscopy has not succeeded.

**First attempt.** Position the patient in sternal recumbency with the head and neck extended to align the oral, pharyngeal, and tracheal axes. In brachycephalic breeds, the tongue is large and the soft palate elongated, so the tongue must be fully retracted and the larynx may be visible only with firm ventral pressure on the hyoid apparatus. Use the laryngoscope to lift the epiglottis and visualize the arytenoid cartilages. If the glottis is seen, pass the tube with a single smooth motion.

**Failed first attempt with adequate oxygenation.** Reassess positioning, suction the pharynx, and consider a different laryngoscope blade or a stylet with a slight anterior curve. A second attempt by the same operator is acceptable if the first attempt was technically flawed. A second attempt by a different, more experienced operator is preferred if the first attempt was technically adequate but unsuccessful.

**Failed second attempt with deteriorating oxygenation.** Stop attempting intubation. Return to bag-mask ventilation with a two-person technique, using an oropharyngeal airway if the patient is deep enough to tolerate it. Optimize the patient's position, ensure the stomach is decompressed if a nasogastric tube is present, and reconsider the induction drug dose. A partial laryngospasm may respond to additional lidocaine or a small increment of induction agent.

**Cannot intubate, cannot oxygenate.** This is the emergency surgical airway threshold. In dogs, a tracheostomy is the traditional approach, but cricothyrotomy has been described as a viable alternative in the operational canine and should be considered when the obstruction is above the cricothyroid membrane. The cricothyroid membrane is palpable in most dogs as a depression between the thyroid and cricoid cartilages. In cats, the membrane is smaller and the surgical approach is more challenging, but the same landmarks apply. The surgical airway kit must be opened immediately, and the procedure performed without delay.

## Monitoring During and After Intubation

Capnography is the single most reliable indicator of correct endotracheal tube placement. A waveform with a plateau phase and an end-tidal CO2 value consistent with the patient's ventilatory status confirms tracheal placement. Absence of waveform after six breaths indicates esophageal placement until proven otherwise. Capnometry, which displays a numeric value without a waveform, is less reliable but still useful. Direct visualization of the tube passing through the glottis is the primary confirmation, and capnography is the secondary confirmation. Auscultation of bilateral lung fields and absence of gastric sounds is a tertiary check that can be misleading in small patients or in the presence of pneumothorax.

Oxygen saturation monitoring detects hypoxemia but lags behind changes in arterial oxygen tension, particularly during apnea. Pulse oximetry is useful for trend monitoring but should not be the sole monitor during intubation. Electrocardiography detects arrhythmias that may result from hypoxemia, vagal stimulation during laryngoscopy, or the drugs used for induction. Blood pressure monitoring is essential because induction agents commonly cause hypotension, and the stress response to laryngoscopy may cause transient hypertension.

After the tube is secured, the cuff should be inflated to the minimal pressure that prevents an audible leak at peak inspiratory pressure. Cuff pressure should be measured with a manometer if available. Pressures above 25 cm H2O risk tracheal mucosal ischemia. The tube should be secured with tape or a tie that allows rapid release, and the connection to the breathing circuit should be checked for leaks.

## Documentation and Handover

The emergency intubation record must include the indication for intubation, the drugs administered with doses and routes, the number of intubation attempts, the method of confirmation, the ETT size and cuff pressure, and any complications encountered. This record serves the immediate clinical team and provides medicolegal protection. The [RCVS Day One Competences](https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/undergraduate-education/) include the expectation that graduates can perform emergency procedures and maintain accurate clinical records, and this standard applies to all veterinary professionals regardless of jurisdiction.

The handover to the next clinician or to the intensive care team must include the same information verbally, with emphasis on the number of attempts and any difficulty encountered. A patient who required multiple attempts at intubation is at higher risk for laryngeal edema and should be monitored for stridor after extubation. The handover should also state the planned ventilation strategy, the target SpO2 and end-tidal CO2 ranges, and the sedation or analgesia plan for the intubated patient.

Practice of emergency intubation skills should occur regularly. A global survey of pediatric emergency clinicians recommended yearly practice for endotracheal intubation and other critical procedures, with simulation-based experiential learning identified as the preferred modality for most procedures. Veterinary clinicians should apply the same standard, using mannequins, cadavers, or supervised clinical opportunities to maintain proficiency. The [MSD Veterinary Manual](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/) provides species-specific guidance on airway anatomy and intubation technique that can supplement hands-on training.

## Complications and Failure Modes

Endotracheal intubation in the emergency patient carries a distinct set of complications that differ from elective anesthesia. Esophageal intubation remains the most immediately life-threatening error. Detection relies on direct visualization of the tube passing through the arytenoid cartilages, but in a struggling or apnoeic patient this view is often lost. Capnography is the most reliable discriminator, and its absence should be considered a critical equipment failure before intubation is attempted. A false-negative capnography reading can occur with severe bronchospasm, cardiac arrest with minimal pulmonary blood flow, or complete airway obstruction distal to the tube tip.

Trauma to the upper airway is under-recognized in emergency intubation. The arytenoid cartilages, laryngeal mucosa, and tracheal rings can be bruised or lacerated by repeated attempts, particularly when a stylet protrudes beyond the tube tip. In cats, laryngospasm and subsequent edema may present as progressive stridor after extubation. Early detection requires a post-extubation assessment that includes audible airway noise at rest, increased respiratory effort, and a palpable increase in upper airway resistance during re-intubation attempts.

Aspiration of gastric contents occurs despite rapid sequence intubation when Sellick's maneuve is applied incorrectly or when the patient vomits during induction. The discriminating finding is the presence of particulate matter or bile-stained fluid in the pharynx or tracheal aspirate, often accompanied by a fall in oxygen saturation within minutes. Endotracheal tube cuff failure, whether from overinflation causing tracheal mucosal ischemia or underinflation allowing leakage, is detected by an audible air leak during positive pressure ventilation and by the inability to maintain circuit pressure.

| Observation | Likely cause | Discriminating check |
|---|---|---|
| No capnograph waveform after placement | Esophageal intubation | Direct laryngoscopy, bilateral thoracic auscultation, chest wall movement |
| Capnograph waveform present but falling | Cardiac arrest, pulmonary embolism, severe hypoperfusion | Assess pulse quality, blood pressure, mucous membrane color |
| Air leak around tube during ventilation | Cuff underinflation or rupture | Inflate cuff, check pilot balloon, auscultate trachea |
| Progressive stridor after extubation | Laryngeal edema or trauma | Re-laryngoscopy, assess arytenoid swelling, consider corticosteroids |
| Vomiting during induction | Inadequate fasting, ineffective cricoid pressure | Suction pharynx, visualize larynx, consider rapid re-intubation |

## Common Errors and Corrective Actions

Less experienced clinicians frequently overestimate the depth of tube placement. In dogs, the tube tip should sit at the thoracic inlet, and in cats just cranial to it. Auscultation over the thorax and the cervical trachea helps confirm position, but radiography is definitive when doubt remains. The corrective action is to measure the tube against the patient before placement, marking the predicted depth at the level of the incisors or canine teeth.

Failure to prepare suction before induction is a recurring error. A Yankauer suction tip is standard, but a novel set-up using an adult endotracheal tube connected to a meconium aspirator has been shown to clear viscous fluids such as blood and emesis faster than a traditional Yankauer instrument, and this configuration should be considered when the airway is contaminated. The corrective action is to test suction function and have the tip within reach of the non-dominant hand before any induction agent is drawn up.

Another common error is attempting intubation without a plan for the failed airway. The operator should have a predetermined number of attempts, typically three, after which a supraglottic device or surgical airway is pursued. In operational working dogs, cricothyrotomy is described as a viable surgical airway when less invasive means fail, and this technique should be rehearsed in advance instead of learned during the emergency.

## Limitations of the Evidence

The veterinary literature on emergency intubation is largely extrapolated from human medicine and from experimental models. A canine trauma model comparing percutaneous transtracheal ventilation with endotracheal intubation found no significant difference in oxygenation, ventilation, or hemodynamics between the two techniques, but this study used healthy animals under controlled conditions and does not reflect the full spectrum of emergency presentations. Similarly, the recommendation for annual practice of critical airway skills is drawn from a survey of pediatric emergency clinicians, not veterinary specialists, and the optimal frequency for veterinary personnel remains undefined.

Expert opinion still differs on several points. The role of video laryngoscopy in veterinary emergency intubation is debated, with some arguing that it improves first-pass success in difficult airways while others contend that it adds complexity and cost without measurable benefit. The use of neuromuscular blocking agents in cats is similarly contested, with concerns about the inability to assess depth of anesthesia once paralysis is induced. Where evidence is limited, the safest approach is to follow the principles of the rapid sequence intubation checklist and to document the reasoning behind each deviation.

## Referral and Escalation

Referral to a specialist is warranted when intubation fails after three attempts, when the patient cannot be oxygenated despite a patent airway, or when upper airway trauma is suspected. A veterinary emergency and critical care specialist or anesthesiologist may offer advanced techniques such as fiberoptic intubation, retrograde intubation, or surgical airway placement. Laboratory involvement is indicated when coagulopathy is suspected as a cause of uncontrolled hemorrhage from the airway, or when electrolyte abnormalities such as hypocalcemia are thought to contribute to laryngeal spasm.

Regulatory reporting obligations vary by jurisdiction. In the United Kingdom, the Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons defines day one competences that include the ability to manage the emergency airway, and a failure to meet this standard may be relevant in professional conduct proceedings. In the United States, the American Veterinary Medical Association provides practice resources that address standards of care, but specific reporting requirements for adverse events are determined by state veterinary boards. International standards for animal welfare during procedures are set out in the World Organization for Animal Health Terrestrial Animal Health Code, and clinicians working across borders should be aware of these expectations. When in doubt about a local requirement, the responsible action is to contact the relevant regulatory body before the incident escalates.

## Frequently Asked Questions

### What can I do when the ideal endotracheal tube size or style is unavailable in an emergency?

Use the largest cuffed tube that passes the larynx without excessive force. A tube one half to one full size smaller than predicted is acceptable, but compensate with a higher cuff inflation volume to achieve a seal, provided the pilot balloon still allows pressure assessment. If no cuffed tube exists, a snug uncuffed tube can be used with gauze throat packing, though aspiration risk rises. In cats, avoid recycling a tube that has kinked. When standard laryngoscopy fails, a stylet, bougie, or video-assisted approach can substitute for a larger blade. The essential goal is a patent, protected airway, not a perfect tube fit. Prioritize ventilation over equipment aesthetics and document what was used.

### How do I manage intubation when working with limited staff or in a field setting?

Assign one person to airway control and another to monitoring, even if that means the intubator also manages induction drugs. Preoxygenate longer when hands are short, because rescue ventilation will be slower. Secure the tube with tape and a tie before doing anything else, since a dislodged tube in a field setting is harder to detect without continuous capnography. Use a self-inflating bag instead of an anesthesia machine if oxygen supply is limited. Have a surgical airway kit open and visible before inducing a patient with suspected upper airway obstruction. In tactical or operational canine work, a surgical cricothyrotomy may be the primary approach when field conditions prevent safe orotracheal intubation, as described in the operational K9 airway literature.

### What should I record immediately after an emergency intubation?

Record the indication, drugs given with routes and times, tube size and depth at the teeth or lips, cuff volume, and the method used to confirm placement. Note the number of attempts, any esophageal intubations, and the duration of each attempt. Document capnography waveforms, SpO2 trends, and any arrhythmias or hypotension during the procedure. Record the patient's airway grade if a laryngoscopy view was obtained. Include the names of all personnel present and the time the tube was secured. This record supports later clinical decisions and handover. The RCVS day one competences expect graduates to maintain accurate clinical records as part of professional practice.

### How do I explain a failed intubation to a client or a supervising clinician?

State what happened factually and without assigning blame. Describe the attempts made, the physiological response of the patient, and the rescue steps taken, such as bag-mask ventilation or a surgical airway. Explain that failed intubation is a recognized complication in emergency airway management and that the team followed a structured algorithm. For a client, use plain language about the airway being difficult to access and reassure them about the current stability of the patient. For a supervisor, present the timeline, the monitoring data, and your proposed next steps. Avoid vague phrases such as "the airway was difficult" without specifying what was observed and done.

### Does the approach differ for brachycephalic dogs or cats with nasopharyngeal disease?

Yes. Brachycephalic dogs often have redundant soft palate tissue, narrowed rima glottidis, and laryngeal collapse, which can obscure the glottis. Use a longer laryngoscope blade and consider a stylet to guide the tube under the epiglottis. Have a smaller tube ready, because the larynx may be smaller than body weight predicts. In cats with nasopharyngeal polyps or masses, the obstruction may be rostral to the larynx, so suction and gentle retraction of the soft palate can improve visualization. Avoid blind passage of the tube, as this can push a mass into the glottis. If the larynx cannot be seen after two attempts, proceed to a surgical airway instead of persisting with blind attempts.

### What are the cost and resource implications of maintaining emergency intubation readiness?

The core equipment, laryngoscope, tubes, stylets, and a bag-valve mask, is inexpensive relative to other emergency supplies. The larger cost is training time and regular practice. Survey data from pediatric emergency clinicians suggest that critical airway skills should be practised at least annually to maintain competence. For a practice, this means budgeting for simulation sessions or operating room time. Disposable laryngoscope blades and tubes have ongoing consumable costs, but they reduce sterilization burdens. Capnography, whether sidestream or mainstream, is a capital purchase that materially improves patient safety and should be prioritized. Practices with limited budgets can start with a basic kit and add monitoring capability incrementally.

## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

* [Veterinary Case Presentation: Structure and Delivery](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/veterinary-case-presentation-structure-delivery)
* [Veterinary Communication in the Workplace: Team Dynamics](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/veterinary-communication-workplace-team-dynamics)
* [Monitoring Plans for Hospitalized Veterinary Patients](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/monitoring-plans-hospitalized-veterinary-patients)


## References and Further Reading

- [Preferred learning modalities and practice for critical skills: a global survey of pediatric emergency medicine clinicians.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30327413/). 2019.
- [Prehospital pediatric endotracheal intubation: a survey of the United States.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10146431/). 1993.
- [Cuirass ventilation: a review and update.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16548815/). 2005.
- [Concepts of Prehospital Advanced Airway Management in the Operational K9: A Focus on Cricothyrotomy.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30859536/). 2019.
- [A comparison of PTV and endotracheal ventilation in an acute trauma model.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4046087/). 1985.
- [Comparing the Effectiveness of a Novel Suction Set-up Using an Adult Endotracheal Tube Connected to a Meconium Aspirator vs. a Traditional Yankauer Suction Instrument.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27751699/). 2017.
- [RCVS Day One Competences](https://www.rcvs.org.uk/setting-standards/undergraduate-education/). RCVS.
- [MSD Veterinary Manual, Professional Edition](https://www.msdvetmanual.com/). MSD Veterinary Manual.
- [American Veterinary Medical Association Practice Resources](https://www.avma.org/resources-tools). American Veterinary Medical Association.

## Related Articles

- [Video-Assisted Endotracheal Intubation in Veterinary Patients](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/video-assisted-endotracheal-intubation-veterinary-patients)
- [Endotracheal Intubation in Veterinary Patients: Equipment and Technique](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/endotracheal-intubation-veterinary-patients-equipment-technique)
- [Bandaging Materials in Veterinary Practice: A Guide to Selection and Use](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/bandaging-materials-veterinary-practice-guide-selection-use)
- [Building a Differential Diagnosis List: A Step-by-Step Framework](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-skills-training/building-differential-diagnosis-list-step-by-step-framework)
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> This article is educational professional reference material for veterinary audiences. It is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, individual clinical judgment, current product labeling, or applicable regulatory requirements.