# Bile Acid Testing in Dogs and Cats: Diagnosing Liver Shunts and Dysfunction


## Key Takeaways

- Bile acid testing directly assesses liver function by measuring the body's ability to clear bile acids from the bloodstream, offering superior diagnostic sensitivity for portosystemic shunts and hepatic dysfunction compared to standard liver enzyme panels (ALT, ALP).
- A standard diagnostic protocol involves paired blood draws: one after a 12-hour fast (Fasting Serum Bile Acids - FSBA) to establish a baseline, and a second 2 hours postprandial (after a fat-containing meal) to evaluate the liver's clearance capacity.
- Elevated postprandial bile acid concentrations, often increasing more than tenfold in shunt cases, are highly indicative of blood bypassing the liver (portosystemic shunting) or significant liver dysfunction, necessitating immediate veterinary intervention.
- While fasting bile acid levels can sometimes be normal in portosystemic shunt cases, the postprandial measurement is crucial for diagnosis, as it reveals the liver's impaired response to a bile acid load.
- Elevated bile acids are not pathognomonic for portosystemic shunts and can also be caused by other conditions affecting liver function or bile flow, such as cirrhosis, hepatic necrosis, or extrahepatic bile duct obstruction, requiring further diagnostic workup.
- Home management with supplements or dietary changes without veterinary supervision is strongly discouraged for suspected liver shunts or dysfunction, as it can lead to serious complications including hepatic encephalopathy and mortality.

---

If your [dog](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-methods/dog) or [cat](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/clinical-methods/cat) is showing signs like stunted growth, intermittent vomiting, excessive drooling, or strange neurological episodes after eating, your veterinarian may recommend a bile acid test. This test is one of the most reliable tools for identifying a congenital portosystemic shunt (liver shunt) and other forms of liver dysfunction. Unlike routine blood panels that measure liver enzymes, bile acid testing evaluates actual liver function, specifically how well the liver clears bile acids from the bloodstream. This article explains what bile acid testing is, why it matters, how to interpret the results, and what you should do if your pet's values are abnormal.

**Owner Triage Summary:** If your pet has been diagnosed with or is suspected of having a liver shunt, bile acid testing is essential, not optional. Fasting and 2-hour postprandial (after eating) bile acid measurements are the standard of care. If your pet's postprandial bile acids are above the reference range, this indicates that blood is bypassing the liver, which requires immediate veterinary intervention. Do not attempt to manage this at home with supplements or dietary changes without veterinary supervision.

## At a Glance: Bile Acid Testing Decision Table

| Aspect | Fasting Bile Acids (FSBA) | Postprandial Bile Acids (2 hours after meal) |
|----|--------------|-----------------------|
| **What it measures** | Baseline bile acid clearance from blood | Liver's ability to handle a bile acid load after eating |
| **Primary use** | Screening for liver dysfunction and shunts | Confirming portosystemic shunts, detecting mild dysfunction |
| **Sensitivity for shunts** | Moderate; can be normal in some shunt cases [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] | High; often increases more than tenfold in shunt cases [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] |
| **Normal range (dogs)** | Approximately 2.3 ± 0.4 µmol/L (mean) [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] | Approximately 8.3 ± 2.2 µmol/L (mean) [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] |
| **Normal range (cats)** | Approximately 1.7 ± 0.3 µmol/L (mean) [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] | Approximately 8.3 ± 0.8 µmol/L (mean) [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] |
| **When to run** | After a 12-hour fast | 2 hours after a standard meal |
| **Key advantage** | Non-invasive, less stressful than ammonia testing [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] | More sensitive than fasting values alone [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] |

## Understanding Bile Acids and Liver Function

Bile acids are synthesized in the liver from cholesterol and are essential for fat digestion and absorption. After a meal, the gallbladder releases bile acids into the small intestine, where they help emulsify dietary fats. Most bile acids are then reabsorbed in the ileum and returned to the liver via the portal vein, a process called enterohepatic circulation. The liver extracts these bile acids from the blood and recycles them.

In a healthy animal, the liver efficiently removes bile acids from the bloodstream, so only low concentrations remain in systemic circulation. This is why fasting bile acid concentrations are normally low. After a meal, there is a transient rise in bile acids, but a healthy liver clears them quickly, keeping postprandial levels within a narrow range.

When the liver is dysfunctional, or when blood bypasses the liver through an abnormal vessel, bile acids accumulate in the systemic circulation. This forms the basis for bile acid testing as a functional assessment of the liver [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>].

## What Is a Portosystemic Shunt?

A portosystemic shunt (PSS), also called a portosystemic venous anomaly (PSVA), is an abnormal vascular connection that allows blood from the intestines to bypass the liver. Instead of the portal blood being filtered through the liver, it flows directly into the systemic circulation. This means that toxins, including ammonia and other nitrogenous waste products, are not detoxified [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-3">3</a>].

Congenital portosystemic shunts are classified as either intrahepatic or extrahepatic. Intrahepatic shunts are located within the liver tissue, while extrahepatic shunts are outside the liver. Extrahepatic shunts are more common in small breed dogs and cats, while intrahepatic shunts are more frequently seen in large breed dogs [<a href="#ref-4">4</a>][<a href="#ref-3">3</a>].

Clinical signs of a shunt are often vague and can involve multiple body systems. Neurological signs, such as lethargy, disorientation, head pressing, circling, and seizures, are common. Gastrointestinal signs include vomiting, diarrhea, and poor appetite. Urinary signs may include frequent urination and the development of urate bladder stones [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>]. Many affected animals also show poor growth and a poor hair coat.

## Why Routine Blood Tests Are Not Enough

Standard blood chemistry panels measure liver enzymes such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). These enzymes indicate liver cell damage or cholestasis, but they do not measure liver function. In animals with portosystemic shunts, enzyme changes are often mild and non-specific [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>]. A dog or cat with a shunt may have normal or only slightly elevated liver enzymes, which can delay diagnosis.

Historically, tests like sulfobromophthalein (BSP) retention and ammonia tolerance tests were used to evaluate liver function. However, these tests are more invasive, time-consuming, and can be difficult to perform in a clinical setting. Bile acid measurements offer a simpler, more patient-friendly alternative [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-5">5</a>]. According to a landmark study, bile acid concentrations were more sensitive than abnormalities in serum enzyme activities or BSP retention and equal in sensitivity to the ammonia tolerance test for detecting hepatobiliary insufficiency [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

## The Bile Acid Testing Protocol

### Fasting Sample

The first step in bile acid testing is a 12-hour fast. Water is allowed, but food must be withheld. A blood sample is drawn after this fast to measure the fasting serum bile acid (FSBA) concentration. This sample reflects the baseline level of bile acids in the bloodstream.

### Postprandial Sample

After the fasting sample is collected, the animal is fed a standard meal. The meal should contain fat to stimulate gallbladder contraction and bile acid release. Two hours after the meal, a second blood sample is drawn. This postprandial sample measures the liver's ability to clear the increased bile acid load.

### Sample Handling

Serum bile acid concentrations are stable, and samples can be sent to a reference laboratory for analysis. The test uses either a solid-phase radioimmunoassay for total conjugated bile acids or a direct enzymatic spectrophotometric method [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>]. Both methods provide reliable results when performed by an accredited laboratory.

## Interpreting Bile Acid Results

### Normal Results

In healthy dogs, the mean fasting serum bile acid concentration is approximately 2.3 ± 0.4 µmol/L, and the mean postprandial concentration is approximately 8.3 ± 2.2 µmol/L [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>]. In healthy cats, the mean fasting concentration is approximately 1.7 ± 0.3 µmol/L, and the postprandial concentration is approximately 8.3 ± 0.8 µmol/L [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>]. Reference ranges may vary slightly between laboratories, so it is important to interpret results based on the specific laboratory's reference interval.

### Abnormal Results

Elevated fasting bile acids indicate that the liver is not clearing bile acids effectively, even at baseline. This can occur with severe liver dysfunction, cirrhosis, or portosystemic shunting. However, in some animals with confirmed shunts, the fasting bile acid concentration can be within the normal range. In one study, the fasting serum bile acid concentration was within the normal range in 5 of 14 dogs with portosystemic venous anomalies [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

Postprandial bile acid concentrations are more sensitive for detecting shunts. In the same study, postprandial concentrations were determined in 3 of the 5 dogs with normal fasting values, and in each case, the postprandial concentration increased more than tenfold above the fasting value [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>]. This is why paired (fasting and postprandial) samples are essential for accurate diagnosis.

### False Positives and Other Causes of Elevation

Elevated bile acids are not specific for portosystemic shunts. Any condition that impairs liver function or bile flow can cause elevations, including cirrhosis, hepatic necrosis, intrahepatic cholestasis, and extrahepatic bile duct obstruction [<a href="#ref-2">2</a>]. In one study of 150 dogs with suspected hepatic disease, there was wide overlapping of fasting serum bile acid values among dogs with different histologic diagnoses, including extrahepatic bile duct obstruction, cirrhosis, portosystemic vascular anastomosis, hepatic necrosis, intrahepatic cholestasis, steroid hepatopathy, and neoplasia [<a href="#ref-2">2</a>]. Therefore, an elevated bile acid result indicates liver dysfunction but does not identify the specific cause.

## Bile Acid Testing Compared to Other Diagnostics

### Ammonia Tolerance Test

The ammonia tolerance test involves measuring blood ammonia before and after administering an ammonia load. While sensitive for detecting shunts, it is more invasive and can cause adverse reactions. Bile acid measurements are accomplished with less inconvenience to the patient and clinician than tests of ammonia tolerance [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>]. In a comparative study, paired bile acid tests were significantly more sensitive than blood ammonia levels for detecting portosystemic shunting [<a href="#ref-6">6</a>].

### Diagnostic Imaging

Abdominal ultrasonography can often identify a portosystemic shunt, but it requires a skilled ultrasonographer and may miss small extrahepatic shunts. Portography and scintigraphy are more definitive but require specialized equipment and anesthesia [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>]. Bile acid testing is often used as a screening test before pursuing advanced imaging.

### Liver Biopsy

Liver biopsy is the gold standard for diagnosing specific liver diseases, but it is invasive and requires anesthesia. Bile acid testing can help determine whether a biopsy is warranted and can be used to monitor response to treatment.

## Bile Acid Testing in Cats: Special Considerations

Cats with congenital extrahepatic portosystemic shunts present unique challenges. Clinical signs may be subtle, and routine blood work may be unremarkable. Bile acid testing is a valuable screening tool in this species. In one study of cats with portosystemic venous anomalies, the mean fasting serum bile acid concentration was 24.4 ± 10.1 µmol/L, and in 2 of the cats, the postprandial concentration increased to a mean of 120.6 µmol/L [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

A recent study of 20 cats with congenital extrahepatic portosystemic shunts treated with ameroid ring constrictor attenuation found that surgical treatment can result in resolution of clinical signs and biochemical abnormalities in the majority of cats [<a href="#ref-7">7</a>]. Postoperative bile acid testing is essential to confirm that the shunt has been adequately attenuated.

## The Role of Bile Acid Testing in Monitoring Treatment

Bile acid testing is not just for initial diagnosis; it is also used to monitor response to treatment. Surgical attenuation of portosystemic shunts, whether by cellophane banding, ameroid ring constrictor, or ligation, aims to redirect blood flow through the liver. Postoperative bile acid concentrations are used to assess the success of the procedure.

In a study of 106 dogs and 5 cats treated with cellophane banding, postoperative serum bile acid concentrations or ammonia tolerance test results were available for 88 animals. Of these, 74 (84%) were normal and 14 (16%) were abnormal [<a href="#ref-4">4</a>]. This indicates that while most animals have normal bile acid values after surgery, some may have persistent abnormalities.

However, in another study, no animal had paired bile acid samples within the reference range postoperatively, indicating continued abnormal liver function after surgery [<a href="#ref-6">6</a>]. This discrepancy may be due to differences in surgical technique, patient selection, or timing of postoperative testing. It highlights the importance of long-term monitoring.

## Medical Management and the Gut-Liver Axis

For animals that are not surgical candidates or for those with persistent abnormalities after surgery, medical management is aimed at reducing the absorption of encephalopathic toxins from the gastrointestinal tract [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>]. This typically involves a low-protein diet, lactulose, and antibiotics.

Recent research has highlighted the importance of the intestinal microbiome in liver health. Bile acid-converting bacteria, such as Clostridium hiranonis, play a beneficial role in the canine gut [<a href="#ref-8">8</a>]. Antibiotics can disrupt this balance, leading to dysbiosis and altered bile acid metabolism [<a href="#ref-9">9</a>]. This is an area of active research, and future therapeutic approaches may focus on restoring a healthy microbiome to support liver function.

## Unsafe Home Remedies and What to Avoid

There are no safe home remedies for liver shunts or severe liver dysfunction. Some owners may consider giving over-the-counter liver supplements, milk thistle, or other herbal products. These are not supported by evidence and may interfere with veterinary treatment. Additionally, do not attempt to change your pet's diet without veterinary guidance, as protein restriction must be carefully balanced to avoid malnutrition.

If your pet has been diagnosed with a liver shunt, follow your veterinarian's instructions precisely. Do not skip doses of prescribed medications, and do not stop treatment without consulting your veterinarian. Attempting to manage this condition at home can lead to worsening neurological signs, hepatic encephalopathy, and death.

## Prognosis and Long-Term Outcomes

The prognosis for animals with portosystemic shunts depends on several factors, including the type of shunt, the presence of other health issues, and the treatment chosen.

For dogs with extrahepatic shunts, surgical attenuation offers a good to excellent prognosis. In one study, clinical signs attributed to portosystemic shunting resolved or were substantially attenuated in all survivors after cellophane banding [<a href="#ref-4">4</a>]. The overall postoperative mortality rate for extrahepatic shunts was 8.7%, while the rate for intrahepatic shunts was 20% [<a href="#ref-6">6</a>].

For cats, the prognosis is fair to good. A recent study found that long-term clinical outcome was good or excellent in 16 of 18 cats available for follow-up after ameroid ring constrictor attenuation [<a href="#ref-7">7</a>]. Perioperative complications, including blindness, ascites, head pressing, and seizures, were reported in 5 of 20 cats, but most cats recovered [<a href="#ref-7">7</a>].

Long-term complication rates vary by surgical technique. In one study, the long-term complication rates for animals with single extrahepatic portosystemic shunts treated with complete ligation, ameroid ring placement, and partial ligation alone were 9%, 15.4%, and 42%, respectively [<a href="#ref-6">6</a>]. This suggests that complete ligation may offer the lowest risk of long-term complications, although it is not always feasible.

## Emergency Red Flags

If your pet has been diagnosed with a liver shunt or is showing signs of liver dysfunction, seek immediate veterinary care if you notice any of the following:

- Seizures or tremors
- Head pressing or circling
- Sudden blindness or disorientation
- Excessive drooling or vomiting
- Lethargy or collapse
- Jaundice (yellowing of the gums, eyes, or skin)
- Abdominal distension (potentially indicating ascites)

These signs may indicate hepatic encephalopathy, a life-threatening condition that requires urgent treatment.

## Limitations and When to Contact a Veterinarian

This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis or treatment. Bile acid testing is a powerful diagnostic tool, but it has limitations. A single elevated bile acid result does not diagnose a specific disease; it indicates that liver function is impaired. Further testing, including diagnostic imaging and possibly liver biopsy, is often necessary to determine the underlying cause.

Breed-level information can be helpful for risk assessment, but it cannot predict whether an individual animal will develop a liver shunt. Mixed-breed animals can also be affected. If you have any concerns about your pet's health, contact your veterinarian. Early diagnosis and treatment offer the best chance for a positive outcome.

## Frequently Asked Questions

### 1. What is a bile acid test in dogs and cats?
A bile acid test measures the concentration of bile acids in the blood to evaluate liver function. It is performed on a fasting sample and again 2 hours after a meal to assess how well the liver clears bile acids from the bloodstream.

### 2. Why is a bile acid test done instead of just a regular blood panel?
Routine blood panels measure liver enzymes, which indicate damage but not function. Bile acid testing directly assesses the liver's ability to perform one of its key jobs, clearing bile acids, making it more sensitive for detecting portosystemic shunts and other functional liver problems [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>][<a href="#ref-2">2</a>].

### 3. How long does my pet need to fast before a bile acid test?
Your pet must fast for 12 hours before the fasting bile acid sample is drawn. Water is allowed, but no food should be given during this period.

### 4. What does a high postprandial bile acid level mean?
A high postprandial bile acid level indicates that the liver is not efficiently clearing bile acids after a meal. This is a strong indicator of a portosystemic shunt or significant liver dysfunction [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

### 5. Can a pet have a liver shunt with normal bile acid results?
Yes, it is possible. In some animals with confirmed shunts, the fasting bile acid concentration can be within the normal range. However, the postprandial concentration is almost always elevated, which is why paired samples are essential [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

### 6. How is a liver shunt treated in dogs and cats?
Treatment options include surgical attenuation of the shunt using techniques like cellophane banding or ameroid ring constrictors [<a href="#ref-4">4</a>][<a href="#ref-7">7</a>]. Medical management, including a low-protein diet and medications to reduce toxin absorption, is used for non-surgical candidates or as a supplement to surgery [<a href="#ref-3">3</a>].

### 7. Are bile acid tests painful for my pet?
No, a bile acid test requires only two blood draws, similar to a routine blood test. It is much less stressful than other liver function tests like the ammonia tolerance test [<a href="#ref-1">1</a>].

### 8. How soon after surgery are bile acid tests repeated?
Postoperative bile acid testing is typically performed within a few weeks to months after surgery to assess the success of shunt attenuation. Long-term monitoring may be recommended to ensure that liver function continues to improve [<a href="#ref-4">4</a>][<a href="#ref-6">6</a>].


<script type="application/ld+json">
{
  "@context": "https://schema.org",
  "@type": "FAQPage",
  "mainEntity": [
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "What is a bile acid test in dogs and cats?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "A bile acid test measures the concentration of bile acids in the blood to evaluate liver function. It is performed on a fasting sample and again 2 hours after a meal to assess how well the liver clears bile acids from the bloodstream."
      }
    },
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "Why is a bile acid test done instead of just a regular blood panel?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "Routine blood panels measure liver enzymes, which indicate damage but not function. Bile acid testing directly assesses the liver's ability to perform one of its key jobs, clearing bile acids, making it more sensitive for detecting portosystemic shunts and other functional liver problems."
      }
    },
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "How long does my pet need to fast before a bile acid test?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "Your pet must fast for 12 hours before the fasting bile acid sample is drawn. Water is allowed, but no food should be given during this period."
      }
    },
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "What does a high postprandial bile acid level mean?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "A high postprandial bile acid level indicates that the liver is not efficiently clearing bile acids after a meal. This is a strong indicator of a portosystemic shunt or significant liver dysfunction."
      }
    },
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "Can a pet have a liver shunt with normal bile acid results?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "Yes, it is possible. In some animals with confirmed shunts, the fasting bile acid concentration can be within the normal range. However, the postprandial concentration is almost always elevated, which is why paired samples are essential."
      }
    },
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "How is a liver shunt treated in dogs and cats?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "Treatment options include surgical attenuation of the shunt using techniques like cellophane banding or ameroid ring constrictors. Medical management, including a low-protein diet and medications to reduce toxin absorption, is used for non-surgical candidates or as a supplement to surgery."
      }
    },
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "Are bile acid tests painful for my pet?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "No, a bile acid test requires only two blood draws, similar to a routine blood test. It is much less stressful than other liver function tests like the ammonia tolerance test."
      }
    },
    {
      "@type": "Question",
      "name": "How soon after surgery are bile acid tests repeated?",
      "acceptedAnswer": {
        "@type": "Answer",
        "text": "Postoperative bile acid testing is typically performed within a few weeks to months after surgery to assess the success of shunt attenuation. Long-term monitoring may be recommended to ensure that liver function continues to improve."
      }
    }
  ]
}
</script>

## Sources

<a id="ref-1"></a>[<a href="#ref-1">1</a>] [Evaluation of serum bile acid concentrations for the diagnosis of portosystemic venous anomalies in the dog and cat.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3997624/)

<a id="ref-2"></a>[<a href="#ref-2">2</a>] [Bile acid concentrations in the diagnosis of hepatobiliary disease in the dog.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4055519/)

<a id="ref-3"></a>[<a href="#ref-3">3</a>] [Congenital portosystemic shunts in dogs and cats.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15726125/)

<a id="ref-4"></a>[<a href="#ref-4">4</a>] [Outcomes of cellophane banding for congenital portosystemic shunts in 106 dogs and 5 cats.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14687183/)

<a id="ref-5"></a>[<a href="#ref-5">5</a>] [Laboratory evaluation of liver disease.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3872505/)

<a id="ref-6"></a>[<a href="#ref-6">6</a>] [Portosystemic shunts: diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of 64 cases (1993-2001).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12617545/)

<a id="ref-7"></a>[<a href="#ref-7">7</a>] [Clinical outcomes for 20 cats with congenital extrahepatic portosystemic shunts treated with ameroid constrictor ring attenuation (2002-2020).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38153121/)

<a id="ref-8"></a>[<a href="#ref-8">8</a>] [Impact of Changes in Gastrointestinal Microbiota in Canine and Feline Digestive Diseases.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33131916/)

<a id="ref-9"></a>[<a href="#ref-9">9</a>] [Effects of a veterinary gastrointestinal diet on fecal characteristics, metabolites, and microbiota concentrations of adult cats treated with metronidazole.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39279199/)

<a id="ref-10"></a>[<a href="#ref-10">10</a>] [Antimicrobial Susceptibility Patterns of Bacteria Associated With Hepatobiliary Disease in Dogs and Cats (2010-2019).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40033521/)

<a id="ref-11"></a>[<a href="#ref-11">11</a>] [L2HGDH Missense Variant in a Cat with L-2-Hydroxyglutaric Aciduria.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34062805/)

<a id="ref-12"></a>[<a href="#ref-12">12</a>] [Inhibition of gastric acid secretion by a glycoprotein isolated from human urine (human urinary gastric inhibitor).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/477718/)

## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

* [Thyroid Testing in Cats: Diagnosing Hyperthyroidism and T4 Fluctuations](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/at-home-diagnostics/thyroid-testing-in-cats-diagnosing-hyperthyroidism-and-t4-fluctuations)
* [Joint Fluid Analysis in Dogs: Diagnosing Septic Arthritis vs Immune-Mediated](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/at-home-diagnostics/joint-fluid-analysis-in-dogs-diagnosing-septic-arthritis-vs-immune-mediated)
* [Blood Glucose Curves for Diabetic Pets: In-Clinic vs At-Home Monitoring](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/at-home-diagnostics/blood-glucose-curves-for-diabetic-pets-in-clinic-vs-at-home-monitoring)