# Canine and Feline Tick-Transmitted Diseases and [Intestinal Parasites](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-dogs-cats-identification-treatment): Diagnosis and Home Treatment ## Key Takeaways - Tick-transmitted diseases in dogs and cats are caused by diverse pathogens including bacteria (*Ehrlichia canis*, *Anaplasma platys*, *Bartonella henselae*, *Rickettsia* spp.), protozoa (*Babesia* spp., *Hepatozoon canis*, *Cytauxzoon felis*), and helminths, with diagnosis relying on hematology, serology (IFA, ELISA), and highly sensitive PCR assays. - Feline cytauxzoonosis, caused by *Cytauxzoon felis* transmitted by *Amblyomma americanum*, is a rapidly progressive and often fatal disease characterized by fever, anorexia, icterus, and disseminated intravascular coagulation, with PCR being crucial for diagnosis. - Common intestinal parasites in dogs and cats include ascarids (*Toxocara* spp.), hookworms, whipworms, cestodes, and protozoa (*Giardia duodenalis*, *Cryptosporidium* spp., *Cystoisospora* spp.), with diagnosis primarily achieved through fecal flotation, direct smears, and coproantigen ELISAs. - "Home treatment" for tick-borne diseases and intestinal parasites in pets is generally ineffective and potentially dangerous; veterinary-approved anthelmintics and acaricides, prescribed based on definitive diagnosis and local epidemiology, are essential for safe and efficacious management. - Integrated parasite control programs, including consistent use of veterinary-prescribed acaricides and regular fecal examinations followed by targeted anthelmintic therapy, are critical for preventing tick-borne diseases and intestinal parasitic infections in companion animals. --- ## Introduction Companion animals, particularly dogs and cats, are susceptible to many parasitic infections that can be broadly categorized into vector-borne diseases (primarily transmitted by ticks) and [intestinal parasites](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-dogs-cats-identification-treatment) acquired through fecal-oral routes or environmental contamination. The clinical management of these conditions requires accurate diagnosis, appropriate pharmacologic intervention, and an understanding of the biological constraints that render many so-called "home treatment" approaches ineffective or dangerous. This article provides a detailed, evidence-based review of the major tick-transmitted pathogens and [intestinal parasites](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-dogs-cats-identification-treatment) affecting dogs and cats, with a focus on diagnostic methodologies and the scientific rationale against non-veterinary home treatment. ## [Tick-Transmitted Diseases in Dogs](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/tick-transmitted-diseases-dogs-anaplasmosis-ehrlichiosis-lyme) and Cats ### Etiology and Epidemiology Tick-transmitted diseases in companion animals are caused by a diverse group of pathogens including bacteria, protozoa, and helminths. The primary vectors are ixodid ticks, whose geographic distribution and host-seeking behavior determine the endemicity of specific pathogens [1]. In dogs, major tick-borne pathogens include *[Ehrlichia canis](/knowledge/bacteria/pet-bacteria/ehrlichia-canis)*, *Anaplasma platys*, *Babesia* spp., and *[Hepatozoon canis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/hepatozoon-canis-dogs-tick-ingestion-diagnosis)* [2, 3]. *E. canis* is an obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium that infects monocytes and macrophages, leading to [canine monocytic ehrlichiosis](/knowledge/bacteria/pet-bacteria/ehrlichia-canis-monocytic-ehrlichiosis-dogs-tick-thrombocytopenia) [2]. *A. platys* is a thrombocytotropic bacterium causing infectious cyclic thrombocytopenia in dogs [2]. *Babesia* spp. are intraerythrocytic protozoan parasites that cause hemolytic anemia [3]. *[Hepatozoon canis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/hepatozoon-canis-dogs-tick-ingestion-diagnosis)* is a protozoan transmitted by ingestion of infected ticks, leading to myositis and periosteal bone proliferation [3]. In cats, significant tick-transmitted pathogens include *[Cytauxzoon felis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/cytauxzoon-felis-cats-bobcat-fever-severe-mortality-diagnosis)*, *[Bartonella henselae](/knowledge/bacteria/pet-bacteria/bartonella-henselae-cat-scratch-disease-clinical-zoonosis)*, *Rickettsia* spp., and *[Anaplasma phagocytophilum](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/anaplasma-phagocytophilum-equine-granulocytic-anaplasmosis-tick)* [4, 5, 6]. *C. felis* is a highly pathogenic protozoan parasite of erythrocytes and macrophages, causing cytauxzoonosis, a disease with high mortality in domestic cats [3, 7]. The natural reservoir for *C. felis* is the bobcat (*Lynx rufus*), and transmission occurs via the tick vector *Amblyomma americanum* [7, 8]. *[Bartonella henselae](/knowledge/bacteria/pet-bacteria/bartonella-henselae-cat-scratch-disease-clinical-zoonosis)* is a Gram-negative bacterium that can cause fever, endocarditis, and lymphadenopathy in cats and is zoonotic [9]. *A. phagocytophilum* infects neutrophils and causes granulocytic anaplasmosis in cats [6]. *Rickettsia* spp., including *Rickettsia felis*, are obligate intracellular bacteria associated with flea and tick vectors [9]. The prevalence of these pathogens varies significantly by geographic region. For example, *C. felis* is endemic in the south-central and southeastern United States, with prevalence rates in carrier cats ranging from 0.6% to 15.3% depending on the study population [8, 10]. In Europe, *Cytauxzoon* sp. infections have been documented in domestic cats in Italy, France, and Spain, often with lower pathogenicity than the North American strains [11, 12, 13]. *E. canis* and *A. platys* are highly prevalent in tropical and subtropical regions, including the Caribbean, where molecular surveys have demonstrated infection rates exceeding 20% in some dog populations [2]. In the United Kingdom, molecular evidence has confirmed the presence of *Babesia* spp., *Ehrlichia* spp., and *Anaplasma* spp. in dogs and cats, indicating that these pathogens are not restricted to warmer climates [14]. ### Clinical Signs and Pathology The clinical manifestations of tick-transmitted diseases are highly variable and often nonspecific. In dogs, ehrlichiosis typically presents in three phases: acute, subclinical, and chronic. The acute phase is characterized by fever, lethargy, anorexia, lymphadenomegaly, and thrombocytopenia [2]. Chronic *E. canis* infection can lead to pancytopenia, epistaxis, and secondary infections due to bone marrow suppression. *A. platys* infection is often subclinical but can cause cyclic thrombocytopenia with petechiation and ecchymoses [2]. Canine babesiosis ranges from mild hemolytic anemia with hemoglobinuria to severe, life-threatening disease with systemic inflammatory response syndrome [3]. *[Hepatozoon canis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/hepatozoon-canis-dogs-tick-ingestion-diagnosis)* infection is associated with fever, muscle pain, and periosteal new bone formation, particularly along the long bones [3]. Feline cytauxzoonosis is a rapidly progressive and often fatal disease. The acute phase is marked by fever, depression, anorexia, icterus, and pale mucous membranes [5, 7]. Pathologically, *C. felis* causes profound erythrocyte parasitemia and sequestration of infected macrophages in the spleen, liver, and lungs, leading to disseminated intravascular coagulation and multi-organ failure [3, 7]. Subclinical carrier states exist, and these cats serve as a reservoir for tick transmission [5, 10]. Coinfections with other vector-borne pathogens, such as *Bartonella* spp. or *Rickettsia* spp., can complicate the clinical picture and worsen prognosis [11, 15]. [Feline bartonellosis](/knowledge/bacteria/pet-bacteria/feline-bartonellosis-clinical-manifestations-diagnostic-challenges-cats) can cause fever, lymphadenopathy, and endocarditis, while *A. phagocytophilum* infection typically presents with fever, lethargy, and polyarthritis [6]. ### Diagnostics Accurate diagnosis of tick-transmitted diseases relies on a combination of hematologic, serologic, and molecular techniques. Complete blood counts often reveal thrombocytopenia, anemia, or pancytopenia, which are suggestive but not pathognomonic [2, 3]. Blood smear examination remains a valuable tool for detecting intraerythrocytic parasites such as *Babesia* spp. and *C. felis*, as well as morulae of *Ehrlichia* and *Anaplasma* species in leukocytes or platelets [3, 7]. However, sensitivity is limited, particularly in chronic or low-level infections. Serologic assays, including indirect immunofluorescence antibody (IFA) tests and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), detect antibodies against specific pathogens. These tests are useful for population screening but cannot distinguish between active and past infection [4, 6]. Molecular diagnostics, particularly polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays, offer superior sensitivity and specificity. PCR amplification of multi-copy mitochondrial genes, such as *cox3*, has been shown to improve detection of *C. felis* compared to ribosomal gene targets like 18S rRNA [16]. High-resolution melt analysis of the *C. felis* cytochrome b gene can provide prognostic information by differentiating between virulent and less pathogenic strains [17]. For *E. canis* and *A. platys*, PCR targeting the 16S rRNA gene or specific outer membrane protein genes is the gold standard for confirming active infection [2]. Protein microarray technology has been used to identify *C. felis* antigens, facilitating the development of more refined serodiagnostic tools [18]. ## [Intestinal Parasites in Dogs and Cats](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-dogs-cats-identification-treatment) ### Etiology and Epidemiology [Intestinal parasites](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-dogs-cats-identification-treatment) are ubiquitous in canine and feline populations worldwide. The most common helminths include ascarids (*[Toxocara canis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/toxocara-canis-roundworm-dogs-puppies-visceral-larva-migrans-human)*, *Toxocara cati*, *Toxascaris leonina*), hookworms (*Ancylostoma* spp., *Uncinaria stenocephala*), whipworms (*Trichuris vulpis*), and cestodes (*Dipylidium caninum*, *Taenia* spp.) [19, 20, 21, 22]. Protozoan parasites include *Giardia duodenalis*, *Cryptosporidium* spp., *Cystoisospora* spp. (formerly *Isospora*), and *[Toxoplasma gondii](/knowledge/parasites/protozoa/toxoplasma-gondii-lifecycle-neurological-infection)* [20, 23, 24, 25]. Prevalence rates vary dramatically based on geographic location, host age, lifestyle, and management practices. In shelter populations, prevalence can exceed 70% in young dogs and 50% in adult dogs [19]. A study in Serbian shelters reported an overall prevalence of 58.3%, with *T. canis* (33.5% in young dogs) and hookworms (16.9% in young dogs) being the most common [19]. In cats, stray populations consistently show higher infection rates than owned pets. A Swiss study found that 77.4% of stray cats, 21.8% of shelter cats, and 11.7% of privately owned cats were positive for [intestinal parasites](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-dogs-cats-identification-treatment), with *T. cati* being the most prevalent (18.5%) [20]. Similar patterns have been observed in Greece, where 90% of stray and free-roaming cats were positive for at least one parasite or vector-borne pathogen [9]. In China, a study of 360 cats found a 41.4% prevalence of intestinal parasites, with *T. cati* (17.8%) and *Isospora* spp. (16.9%) being most common [24]. Environmental contamination plays a critical role in transmission. Fecal samples collected from public soil in Milan, Italy, showed a 16.6% prevalence of intestinal parasites, with *G. duodenalis* (11.1%) and *T. vulpis* (3.7%) being the most common zoonotic agents [26]. This highlights the public health risk posed by canine and feline fecal contamination in urban environments [22, 26, 27]. ### Clinical Signs and Pathology Clinical signs of intestinal parasitism range from subclinical infections to severe gastrointestinal disease. Ascarid infections in puppies and kittens can cause poor growth, pot-bellied appearance, vomiting, and diarrhea. Heavy *T. canis* burdens can lead to intestinal obstruction [19, 22]. Hookworms are blood-feeding parasites that cause anemia, melena, and weight loss, particularly in young animals [21, 28]. *Trichuris vulpis* infection is associated with chronic large bowel diarrhea, tenesmus, and mucoid feces [19, 26]. Cestode infections, such as *D. caninum*, are often asymptomatic but can cause perianal pruritus and weight loss in heavy infections [19, 21]. Protozoan infections vary in pathogenicity. *Giardia duodenalis* can cause acute or chronic small bowel diarrhea, steatorrhea, and weight loss, particularly in young or immunocompromised animals [22, 23, 25]. *Cryptosporidium* spp. typically cause self-limiting diarrhea in immunocompetent hosts but can be severe in neonates [23, 25]. *Cystoisospora* spp. are common causes of diarrhea in puppies and kittens, often in association with stress or concurrent infections [19, 24]. *[Toxoplasma gondii](/knowledge/parasites/protozoa/toxoplasma-gondii-lifecycle-neurological-infection)* infection in cats is usually subclinical, but oocyst shedding can pose a [zoonotic risk](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/zoonotic-risk-humans-get-parasites-from-pets) [20, 24]. ### Diagnostics The cornerstone of intestinal parasite diagnosis is copromicroscopic examination. Fecal flotation techniques, using solutions such as Sheather's sugar solution or saturated salt, are the most widely used methods for concentrating helminth eggs and protozoan oocysts [19, 21, 29]. Centrifugal flotation is more sensitive than passive flotation for detecting a broader range of parasites [21]. Direct fecal smears are useful for detecting motile protozoan trophozoites, such as *Giardia*, but have low sensitivity for helminth eggs [24]. The Baermann technique is required for the recovery of lungworm larvae, such as *Aelurostrongylus abstrusus* in cats [20]. Immunodiagnostic assays, including coproantigen ELISAs for *Giardia* and *Cryptosporidium*, offer improved sensitivity over microscopy and can detect infections even when organisms are not visible [25, 26]. Molecular methods, such as PCR and sequencing, provide definitive species identification and can differentiate between zoonotic and non-zoonotic genotypes. For example, *G. duodenalis* assemblages A and B are zoonotic, while assemblages C through F are host-specific [22, 25]. PCR has also been used to detect and genotype *Blastocystis* sp. and *Cryptosporidium* spp. in household dogs, revealing potential zoonotic transmission risks [23]. ## [Dog Heartworm and Tick Medicine](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/canine-heartworm-and-tick-borne-disease-prevention-integrated-medicine-strategies) The term "[dog heartworm and tick medicine](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/heartworm-tick-prevention-dogs)" refers to the class of pharmaceutical products designed to prevent heartworm disease (caused by *Dirofilaria immitis*) and to control tick infestations. These products are typically administered as oral tablets, topical solutions, or injectable formulations. The active ingredients include macrocyclic lactones (e.g., ivermectin, milbemycin oxime) for heartworm prevention, and isoxazolines (e.g., afoxolaner, fluralaner) or pyrethroids for tick control. It is critical to note that these products are prescription medications that require veterinary oversight. The efficacy of these compounds is dependent on proper dosing, adherence to administration schedules, and an understanding of the local epidemiology of heartworm and tick-borne diseases [1, 30]. Attempting to use non-veterinary formulations or incorrect dosing regimens can result in treatment failure, adverse drug reactions, and the development of drug resistance. ## [Dog Intestinal Parasites Home Treatment](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-in-dogs-home-treatment) The concept of "[dog intestinal parasites home treatment](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/intestinal-parasites-in-dogs-home-treatment)" is a subject of significant concern in veterinary medicine. Many over-the-counter products and home remedies are marketed for the treatment of intestinal worms, but their efficacy is often unproven or suboptimal. Common home treatments include the use of diatomaceous earth, pumpkin seeds, garlic, and various herbal preparations. There is no robust scientific evidence supporting the efficacy of these substances for eliminating [intestinal parasites in dogs](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/canine-intestinal-parasites-zoonotic-risks). Some home remedies, such as garlic, can be toxic to dogs, causing hemolytic anemia. The only evidence-based approach to treating intestinal parasites involves the use of veterinary-approved anthelmintic drugs. For example, pyrantel pamoate is effective against ascarids and hookworms, fenbendazole has a broad spectrum of activity against nematodes and some cestodes, and praziquantel is specific for cestodes [19, 21, 28]. The choice of drug, dosage, and treatment schedule must be based on the specific parasite identified through diagnostic testing. Indiscriminate use of anthelmintics can contribute to the development of drug resistance, a growing problem in veterinary parasitology. Therefore, home treatment without a definitive diagnosis and veterinary guidance is strongly discouraged. ## Control and Prevention Integrated parasite control programs are essential for managing both tick-transmitted diseases and intestinal parasites. For tick-borne diseases, the primary preventive measure is the consistent use of acaricidal products to reduce tick attachment and feeding [1]. Environmental management, including keeping grass short and avoiding tick-infested areas, can also reduce exposure. For intestinal parasites, routine fecal examinations (at least twice yearly for adult pets and more frequently for puppies and kittens) are recommended to detect infections early [19, 20, 22]. Regular deworming with broad-spectrum anthelmintics, particularly in high-risk populations such as shelter animals, is a cornerstone of control [19, 28]. Prompt removal and proper disposal of feces from the environment reduces the risk of reinfection and environmental contamination [26]. Public education regarding the zoonotic potential of parasites such as *Toxocara* spp., *Giardia*, and *Cryptosporidium* is critical for protecting human health [22, 25, 27]. ## Diagnostic Workflow The following Mermaid diagram illustrates a generalized diagnostic workflow for a dog [or cat](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/preventive-care/or-cat-logical-health) presenting with suspected parasitic disease. ```mermaid flowchart TD A["Clinical Presentation: Fever, Diarrhea, Anemia, Lethargy"] --> B{"History and Physical Exam"} B --> C["Blood Sample Collection"] B --> D["Fecal Sample Collection"] C --> E["Complete Blood Count & Blood Smear"] E --> F{"Intraerythrocytic or Leukocytic Parasites?"} F -->|"Yes"| G["PCR for Babesia, Cytauxzoon, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma"] F -->|"No"| H["Serology for Tick-Borne Pathogens"] D --> I["Copromicroscopy: Flotation, Direct Smear, Baermann"] I --> J{"Helminth Eggs or Protozoan Oocysts Detected?"} J -->|"Yes"| K["Species Identification & Quantification"] J -->|"No"| L["Coproantigen ELISA for Giardia & Cryptosporidium"] K --> M["Targeted Anthelmintic or Antiprotozoal Therapy"] L --> M G --> M H --> M M --> N["Follow-up Fecal Exam & Clinical Reassessment"] ``` ## References [1] Dryden MW, Payne PA. Biology and control of ticks infesting dogs and cats in North America. Vet Ther. 2004. [2] Alhassan A, Hove P, Sharma B, et al. Molecular detection and characterization of Anaplasma platys and [Ehrlichia canis](/knowledge/bacteria/pet-bacteria/ehrlichia-canis) in dogs from the Caribbean. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 2021. [3] Holman PJ, Snowden KF. Canine hepatozoonosis and babesiosis, and feline cytauxzoonosis. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2009. [4] Villanueva-Saz S, Martínez M, Nijhof AM, et al. Molecular survey on vector-borne pathogens in clinically healthy stray cats in Zaragoza (Spain). Parasit Vectors. 2023. [5] Zieman EA, Phillips VC, Jiménez FA, et al. Clinical and subclinical [Cytauxzoon felis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/cytauxzoon-felis-cats-bobcat-fever-severe-mortality-diagnosis) infections in domestic cats from a recently identified endemic region. J Parasitol. 2023. [6] Hamel D, Bondarenko A, Silaghi C, et al. 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Prevalence of [Cytauxzoon felis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/cytauxzoon-felis-cats-bobcat-fever-severe-mortality-diagnosis) Infection-Carriers in Eastern Kansas Domestic Cats. Pathogens. 2020. [11] Antognoni MT, Rocconi F, Ravagnan S, et al. Cytauxzoon sp. Infection and Coinfections in Three Domestic Cats in Central Italy. Vet Sci. 2022. [12] Legroux JP, Halos L, René-Martellet M, et al. First clinical case report of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in a domestic cat in France. BMC Vet Res. 2017. [13] Veronesi F, Ravagnan S, Cerquetella M, et al. First detection of Cytauxzoon spp. infection in European wildcats (Felis silvestris silvestris) of Italy. Ticks Tick Borne Dis. 2016. [14] Shaw SE, Binns SH, Birtles RJ, et al. Molecular evidence of tick-transmitted infections in dogs and cats in the United Kingdom. Vet Rec. 2005. [15] Torina A, Naranjo V, Pennisi MG, et al. Serologic and molecular characterization of tickborne pathogens in lions (Panthera leo) from the Fasano Safari Park, Italy. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2007. [16] Schreeg ME, Marr HS, Griffith EH, et al. PCR amplification of a multi-copy mitochondrial gene (cox3) improves detection of [Cytauxzoon felis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/cytauxzoon-felis-cats-bobcat-fever-severe-mortality-diagnosis) infection as compared to a ribosomal gene (18S). Vet Parasitol. 2016. [17] Schreeg ME, Marr HS, Tarigo JL, et al. Rapid High-Resolution Melt Analysis of [Cytauxzoon felis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/cytauxzoon-felis) Cytochrome b To Aid in the Prognosis of Cytauxzoonosis. J Clin Microbiol. 2015. [18] Schreeg ME, Marr HS, Tarigo JL, et al. Identification of [Cytauxzoon felis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/cytauxzoon-felis) antigens via protein microarray and assessment of expression library immunization against cytauxzoonosis. Clin Proteomics. 2018. [19] Ilić T, Nišavić U, Gajić B, et al. Prevalence of [intestinal parasites in dogs](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/dog-intestinal-parasites-zoonotic-transmission) from public shelters in Serbia. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis. 2021. [20] Zottler E, Bieri M, Basso W, et al. Intestinal parasites and lungworms in stray, shelter and privately owned cats of Switzerland. Parasitol Int. 2019. [21] Gillespie S, Bradbury R. A Survey of Intestinal Parasites of Domestic Dogs in Central Queensland. Trop Med Infect Dis. 2017. [22] Zanzani S, Gazzonis A, Scarpa P, et al. Intestinal Parasites of Owned Dogs and Cats from Metropolitan and Micropolitan Areas: Prevalence, Zoonotic Risks, and Pet Owner Awareness in Northern Italy. Biomed Res Int. 2014. [23] Osman M, Bories J, El Safadi D, et al. Prevalence and genetic diversity of the intestinal parasites Blastocystis sp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in household dogs in France and evaluation of zoonotic transmission risk. Vet Parasitol. 2015. [24] Yang Y, Liang H. Prevalence and Risk Factors of Intestinal Parasites in Cats from China. Biomed Res Int. 2015. [25] Uehlinger F, Greenwood S, McClure J, et al. Zoonotic potential of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. and prevalence of intestinal parasites in young dogs from different populations on Prince Edward Island, Canada. Vet Parasitol. 2013. [26] Zanzani S, Di Cerbo AD, Gazzonis A, et al. Canine Fecal Contamination in a Metropolitan Area (Milan, North-Western Italy): Prevalence of Intestinal Parasites and Evaluation of Health Risks. ScientificWorldJournal. 2014. [27] Beiromvand M, Akhlaghi L, Fattahi Massom SH, et al. Prevalence of zoonotic intestinal parasites in domestic and stray dogs in a rural area of Iran. Prev Vet Med. 2013. [28] Ortuño A, Scorza V, Castellà J, et al. Prevalence of intestinal parasites in shelter and hunting dogs in Catalonia, Northeastern Spain. Vet J. 2014. [29] Simonato G, Frangipane di Regalbono A, Cassini R, et al. Copromicroscopic and molecular investigations on intestinal parasites in kenneled dogs. Parasitol Res. 2015. [30] Otranto D, Dantas-Torres F, Brianti E, et al. Vector-borne helminths of dogs and humans in Europe. Parasit Vectors. 2013. ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Tick-Borne Diseases in Dogs: Pathogens, Clinical Signs, Diagnosis, and Prevention](/knowledge/parasites/general/tick-borne-diseases-dogs) * [Toxoplasmosis in Cats and the Risk of Brain Infection in Humans](/knowledge/parasites/general/toxoplasmosis-cats-brain-infection-humans) * [Dog Heartworm and Tick-Borne Disease Prevention](/knowledge/parasites/general/dog-heartworm-and-tick-borne-disease-prevention)