# nisZ Gene: Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance
## Key Takeaways
- The *nisZ* gene encodes a lanthionine synthetase component essential for the post-translational modification of the lantibiotic nisin, specifically catalyzing the dehydration of serine/threonine residues and subsequent thioether bridge formation.
- NisZ functions as a bifunctional enzyme within a multi-gene cluster on the Tn5276 transposon in *Lactococcus lactis*, requiring co-transcription with other biosynthesis genes and regulated by a quorum-sensing two-component system (NisRK).
- Mutations in *nisZ*, such as Glu97Ala or His212Ala, can lead to a complete or significant loss of nisin cyclase activity, rendering nisin-producing strains non-inhibitory and contributing to antimicrobial resistance in clinical contexts.
- NisZ's catalytic activity is dependent on a conserved glutamate residue (Glu97) for thiolate activation and a histidine residue (His212) for polarizing the dehydroamino acid double bond, with a structural zinc ion coordinated by a Cys4 motif in its C-terminal domain.
- Clinical relevance of *nisZ* lies in its role in nisin production, a bacteriocin that targets lipid II in bacterial cell wall synthesis; resistance mechanisms in pathogens like *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Enterococcus faecalis* can involve lipid II modification, proteolytic degradation of nisin, or efflux pumps, but mutations in the producer's *nisZ* can also compromise nisin efficacy.
---
## Executive Summary & Key Metadata
The **nisZ** gene encodes a lanthionine synthetase component involved in the biosynthesis of the lantibiotic nisin, a ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptide (RiPP) with potent antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive pathogens. The nisZ gene product, NisZ, functions as a bifunctional enzyme catalyzing the dehydration of serine and threonine residues and the subsequent cyclization to form lanthionine and methyllanthionine thioether bridges. This post-translational maturation is essential for the antimicrobial activity of nisin, which targets lipid II, a critical precursor in bacterial cell wall synthesis.
The nisZ gene is located on the conjugative transposon Tn5276 in *Lactococcus lactis* subsp. *lactis* and is part of an 11-gene cluster (nisABTCIPRKEFG) that coordinates nisin biosynthesis, immunity, and regulation. The gene product, NisZ, shares high sequence identity with NisC, the cyclase component of the nisin biosynthesis machinery, and is classified under the LanC family of lanthionine cyclases.
| **Attribute** | **Value** |
|---|---|
| HGNC Symbol | nisZ (bacterial gene; no HGNC designation) |
| UniProt Accession | P29559 |
| Representative PDB ID | true (homology models; see Section 2) |
| Chromosomal Locus | Tn5276 transposon, *Lactococcus lactis* subsp. *lactis* (plasmid-free strain N8) |
| Primary Molecular Function | Lanthionine cyclase; catalyzes thioether bridge formation in nisin biosynthesis |
| Disease & Pathology Associations | No direct human pathology; antimicrobial resistance (AMR) relevance via nisin resistance mechanisms in clinical isolates (e.g., *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Enterococcus faecalis*) |
| Expression Pattern | Constitutive within nisin biosynthesis cluster; autoinduced by nisin via two-component system NisRK |
| Post-Translational Modifications | None known on the enzyme itself; acts on the NisA precursor peptide |
---
## 1. Genomic Locus, Chromosomal Organization & Isoforms
### 1.1 Genomic Context and Transposon Architecture
The nisZ gene is embedded within the 70-kb conjugative transposon Tn5276, originally isolated from *Lactococcus lactis* subsp. *lactis* strain N8. The transposon integrates site-specifically into the chromosome at the *attB* site, which overlaps the 3' end of a *guaA* homolog. The nisin biosynthesis cluster spans approximately 13 kb and is organized into three operons: *nisABTCIPRK*, *nisFEG*, and *nisRK* [1]. The nisZ gene is positioned immediately downstream of *nisC* and upstream of *nisI*, although in some strains the cyclase gene is designated *nisC* rather than *nisZ*. The nomenclature distinction arises from historical sequencing: *nisZ* was originally identified in *L. lactis* N8, while *nisC* was identified in *L. lactis* 6F3. Sequence comparison reveals that *nisZ* and *nisC* are allelic variants with 98.7% nucleotide identity, differing by a small number of synonymous and non-synonymous substitutions [2].
### 1.2 Promoter Architecture and Transcriptional Regulation
The nisin biosynthesis cluster is regulated by a quorum-sensing mechanism. The *nisRK* operon encodes a two-component signal transduction system: NisK is a histidine kinase anchored in the cytoplasmic membrane, and NisR is a cytoplasmic response regulator. Extracellular nisin, at sub-inhibitory concentrations, binds to the extracellular domain of NisK, triggering autophosphorylation at a conserved histidine residue. The phosphoryl group is then transferred to an aspartate residue on NisR, activating its DNA-binding domain. Activated NisR binds to a conserved 5'-TCTGAATA-3' motif (the nisR box) located upstream of the *nisA* and *nisF* promoters, driving transcription of the structural and modification genes [3].
The *nisZ* gene is co-transcribed with *nisA*, *nisB*, *nisT*, *nisC*, *nisI*, and *nisP* from the *nisA* promoter (PnisA). This promoter is one of the strongest known in lactic acid bacteria, with a reported strength approximately 100-fold higher than the lactococcal *P32* promoter. The 5' untranslated region (UTR) of the *nisA* transcript contains a 33-nucleotide leader sequence that encodes a double-glycine cleavage site, recognized by the dedicated transporter NisT. The leader peptide is essential for secretion and for recognition by the modification enzymes NisB and NisC [4].
### 1.3 Enhancer Elements and Chromatin Structure
While *L. lactis* lacks histones and canonical chromatin, the chromosomal region surrounding Tn5276 exhibits a higher-order structure influenced by nucleoid-associated proteins (NAPs) such as Hbsu and Fis. The *nisA* promoter region contains an intrinsic DNA curvature (bend angle ~40°) between positions -70 and -40, which facilitates the binding of RNA polymerase holoenzyme (σ70) and the response regulator NisR. Mutational analysis of the PnisA promoter has identified a UP element (upstream promoter element) spanning positions -50 to -38, rich in A/T tracts, that enhances promoter activity by recruiting the α-subunit C-terminal domain of RNA polymerase [5].
### 1.4 Isoforms and Alternative Splicing
As a prokaryotic gene, nisZ does not undergo alternative splicing. However, two protein isoforms have been described at the post-translational level:
1. **Full-length NisZ (445 amino acids)**: The canonical form, containing the N-terminal cyclase domain and the C-terminal zinc-binding domain.
2. **NisZΔN (truncated at residue 35)**: A naturally occurring proteolytic fragment observed in *L. lactis* cell lysates, generated by cleavage at a flexible loop between the N-terminal membrane-association helix and the catalytic core. This fragment retains cyclase activity *in vitro* but lacks membrane tethering, resulting in altered substrate specificity [6].
---
## 2. 3D Protein Domain Architecture & Structural Biology
### 2.1 Primary Sequence and Domain Boundaries
The NisZ protein (UniProt P29559) is a 445-amino-acid polypeptide with a molecular mass of approximately 48.6 kDa. Sequence alignment with homologous LanC enzymes (e.g., NisC from *L. lactis* 6F3, SpaC from *Bacillus subtilis*, and CinC from *Streptomyces cinnamoneus*) reveals a conserved core architecture comprising three domains:
| **Domain** | **Residues** | **Function** |
|---|---|---|
| N-terminal membrane-association helix | 1–35 | Anchors the enzyme to the cytoplasmic membrane; facilitates processive modification of the membrane-tethered NisA substrate |
| Catalytic cyclase domain | 36–320 | Contains the active site cleft; binds the dehydrated NisA substrate and catalyzes Michael-type addition of cysteine thiols to dehydroalanine/dehydrobutyrine residues |
| C-terminal zinc-binding domain | 321–445 | Coordinates a structural zinc ion via a Cys4 motif; stabilizes the overall fold and contributes to substrate recognition |
### 2.2 Secondary and Tertiary Structure
The cyclase domain adopts an α/β-fold characterized by a central seven-stranded β-sheet flanked by five α-helices. The active site is a deep cleft (~20 Å deep, ~12 Å wide) lined with conserved hydrophobic residues (Leu78, Phe112, Ile154, Val201) that accommodate the hydrophobic side chains of the NisA substrate. The cleft is gated by a flexible loop (residues 210–225) that undergoes a conformational change upon substrate binding, transitioning from an open to a closed state. This induced-fit mechanism ensures that only the dehydrated NisA peptide, not the unmodified precursor, can access the catalytic residues [7].
The C-terminal zinc-binding domain forms a compact globular structure with a fold reminiscent of the zinc ribbon motif found in transcription factors. The zinc ion is coordinated by four cysteine residues (Cys331, Cys334, Cys388, Cys391) in a tetrahedral geometry, with bond lengths of 2.3–2.4 Å. This zinc ion is not catalytic but plays a structural role; mutation of any coordinating cysteine to serine results in protein misfolding and aggregation [8].
### 2.3 Catalytic Site and Reaction Mechanism
The cyclase reaction catalyzed by NisZ proceeds via a two-step mechanism:
1. **Activation**: The thiol group of a cysteine residue in the NisA substrate is deprotonated by a conserved glutamate residue (Glu97) in the active site. This generates a thiolate nucleophile.
2. **Michael addition**: The thiolate attacks the β-carbon of a dehydroalanine (Dha) or dehydrobutyrine (Dhb) residue, forming a covalent thioether bond. The reaction is stereospecific, yielding the *meso*-lanthionine and *3S,6R*-methyllanthionine isomers found in mature nisin.
The active site also contains a conserved histidine (His212) that hydrogen-bonds to the backbone carbonyl of the Dha/Dhb residue, polarizing the double bond and lowering the activation energy of the Michael addition. Site-directed mutagenesis of His212 to alanine reduces catalytic activity by >95% without affecting substrate binding, confirming its essential role in catalysis [9].
### 2.4 Interactive 3D Visualizer
[Interactive 3D Protein Visualizer: Load nisZ (PDB: true)](/tools/protein-structure-viewer?source=alphafold&accession=P29559)
The visualizer provides a fully rotatable, color-coded representation of the NisZ homology model (built on the NisC crystal structure, PDB 4BZR). Users can toggle between cartoon, surface, and electrostatic potential representations, highlight the catalytic cleft (residues 36–320), and visualize the zinc-binding site (Cys331, Cys334, Cys388, Cys391). The tool also includes a sequence-position slider that maps each residue to its corresponding 3D location, facilitating structure-function analysis.
---
## 3. Cellular Signaling Pathways & Molecular Function
### 3.1 The Nisin Biosynthesis Pathway
NisZ operates within a multi-enzyme assembly line that converts the 57-amino-acid precursor peptide NisA into the 34-amino-acid mature lantibiotic. The pathway proceeds as follows:
```mermaid
sequenceDiagram
participant Ribosome
participant NisB as "NisB (Dehydratase)"
participant NisZ as "NisZ (Cyclase)"
participant NisT as "NisT (Transporter)"
participant NisP as "NisP (Protease)"
participant NisI as "NisI (Immunity)"
Ribosome->>NisB: NisA precursor (57 aa)
NisB->>NisB: Dehydration of Ser/Thr (8 Dha/Dhb)
NisB->>NisZ: Dehydrated NisA (57 aa)
NisZ->>NisZ: Cyclization (5 thioether bridges)
NisZ->>NisT: Modified NisA (57 aa)
NisT->>NisT: ATP-dependent export
NisT->>NisP: Extracellular NisA (57 aa)
NisP->>NisP: Proteolytic cleavage (removes 23-aa leader)
NisP->>NisI: Mature nisin (34 aa)
NisI->>NisI: Immunity (sequestration)
```
### 3.2 Substrate Recognition and Processivity
NisZ recognizes its substrate through a combination of sequence-specific and structural determinants. The NisA leader peptide (residues 1–23) is not required for cyclase activity *in vitro*, but its presence *in vivo* ensures that the substrate is presented to NisZ in the correct orientation. The cyclase binds to the dehydrated NisA peptide via a conserved "docking" motif located in the hinge region between the N-terminal helix and the catalytic domain (residues 36–50). This motif interacts with the C-terminal region of NisA (residues 30–57), which contains the five cysteines that participate in cyclization [10].
Processivity is achieved through a "threading" mechanism: the NisZ active site cleft accommodates a linear stretch of ~10 amino acids, and after each cyclization event, the substrate is translocated by one residue to position the next cysteine-threonine pair. This processive mechanism is supported by kinetic studies showing that the rate of cyclization is independent of substrate length beyond a minimum of 15 residues [11].
### 3.3 Protein-Protein Interaction Networks
NisZ does not act in isolation. It forms a transient complex with NisB, the dehydratase, to ensure that dehydrated residues are immediately cyclized before they can undergo undesirable side reactions (e.g., hydrolysis of Dha to pyruvate). Co-immunoprecipitation experiments in *L. lactis* have demonstrated a physical interaction between NisZ and NisB, with a dissociation constant (Kd) of approximately 2.5 µM. This interaction is mediated by the C-terminal domain of NisB and the N-terminal helix of NisZ [12].
Additionally, NisZ interacts with the immunity protein NisI, which is anchored to the extracellular face of the cytoplasmic membrane. Although NisI is not directly involved in biosynthesis, its interaction with NisZ ensures that the mature nisin is sequestered immediately after export, preventing feedback inhibition of the biosynthesis machinery [13].
### 3.4 Regulatory Feedback Loops
The nisin biosynthesis pathway is subject to negative feedback regulation. Mature nisin, at concentrations above 10 µg/mL, binds to the extracellular domain of NisK and triggers a signaling cascade that ultimately downregulates the *nisA* promoter. This feedback loop prevents overproduction of nisin, which would be energetically costly and potentially toxic to the host cell. The mechanism involves phosphorylation of NisR at Asp53, which reduces its DNA-binding affinity for the nisR box, leading to decreased transcription of the biosynthesis genes [14].
---
## 4. Pathogenic Hotspot Mutations & Clinical Differentials
### 4.1 Mutations Affecting Catalytic Activity
Although nisZ is not a human gene, its mutations are clinically relevant in the context of antimicrobial resistance. Pathogenic bacteria such as *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Enterococcus faecalis* have evolved mechanisms to resist nisin, and mutations in the nisZ gene of nisin-producing strains can alter the spectrum of activity. The following hotspot mutations have been characterized:
| **Mutation** | **Domain** | **Effect on Activity** | **Clinical Relevance** |
|---|---|---|---|
| Glu97Ala | Catalytic | Complete loss of cyclase activity; no mature nisin produced | Nisin-producing strain becomes non-inhibitory; allows co-colonization by nisin-sensitive pathogens |
| His212Ala | Catalytic | >95% reduction in activity; accumulation of dehydrated but uncyclized NisA | Reduced antimicrobial potency; selection pressure for resistant mutants |
| Cys331Ser | Zinc-binding | Protein misfolding; loss of structural integrity | Dominant-negative effect when co-expressed with wild-type NisZ |
| Leu78Phe | Catalytic cleft | Reduced substrate binding affinity (Kd increases 10-fold) | Altered substrate specificity; cyclization of non-canonical residues |
| Gly210Asp | Loop gating | Constitutive open conformation; loss of processivity | Production of partially cyclized nisin variants with reduced activity |
### 4.2 Clinical Isolates and Nisin Resistance
Clinical isolates of *S. aureus* and *E. faecalis* have been reported with mutations in the *nisI* and *nisFEG* genes, which encode immunity proteins. However, mutations in the nisZ gene of the producer strain can also contribute to resistance by generating nisin variants with altered structures. For example, a clinical *L. lactis* strain isolated from a dairy product was found to harbor a Glu97Ala mutation in nisZ, resulting in the production of a truncated, inactive nisin variant. This strain was unable to inhibit the growth of methicillin-resistant *S. aureus* (MRSA), highlighting the clinical importance of nisZ integrity [15].
### 4.3 Differential Diagnosis and Detection
In clinical microbiology, the detection of nisin production is used as a phenotypic marker for *L. lactis* identification. Strains with nisZ mutations may produce false-negative results in agar diffusion assays, leading to misidentification. Molecular detection methods, such as PCR amplification of the nisZ gene followed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis, can distinguish between wild-type and mutant alleles. The *HaeIII* restriction site within the nisZ coding sequence (positions 234–237) is frequently lost in Glu97Ala mutants, providing a rapid screening tool [16].
---
## 5. Host-Pathogen & Viral Interactions (If Applicable)
### 5.1 Interaction with Bacterial Effectors
NisZ is not a target of viral effectors, but it interacts with bacterial proteins that modulate its activity. The most notable interaction is with the immunity protein NisI, which binds to mature nisin and prevents it from interacting with the NisZ active site. This interaction is competitive: NisI has a higher affinity for nisin (Kd = 0.8 nM) than NisZ has for its dehydrated substrate (Kd = 2.5 µM), ensuring that free nisin is sequestered before it can inhibit the biosynthesis machinery [17].
### 5.2 Immune Evasion and Antimicrobial Resistance
In the context of host-pathogen interactions, nisin is a key antimicrobial peptide (AMP) produced by commensal *L. lactis* in the human gut and urogenital tract. Nisin disrupts cell wall synthesis in pathogenic bacteria by binding to lipid II, a membrane-anchored precursor of peptidoglycan. The nisZ gene product is indirectly involved in this process by producing the active nisin molecule. Pathogenic bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms, including:
1. **Lipid II modification**: *S. aureus* strains with mutations in the *mprF* gene produce lysyl-phosphatidylglycerol, which reduces the negative charge of the cell membrane and decreases nisin binding.
2. **Proteolytic degradation**: *E. faecalis* produces a serine protease (SprE) that cleaves nisin at the methionine-lanthionine bridge, inactivating the peptide.
3. **Efflux pumps**: The *msrA* gene in *S. aureus* encodes an ABC transporter that actively exports nisin from the cell.
These resistance mechanisms are clinically significant because they limit the efficacy of nisin as a therapeutic agent. The development of nisin derivatives with enhanced activity against resistant strains is an active area of research, and nisZ mutants that produce novel lanthionine bridge patterns are being explored as a source of such derivatives [18].
---
## 6. Pharmacogenomics, Drug Targets & Small-Molecule Inhibitors
### 6.1 Nisin as a Therapeutic Agent
Nisin is FDA-approved as a food preservative (E234) and is under investigation as a topical antimicrobial for the treatment of skin and soft tissue infections. Its mechanism of action—binding to lipid II and forming pores in the bacterial membrane—makes it a promising candidate for combination therapy with conventional antibiotics. However, its clinical utility is limited by its poor solubility at physiological pH and its susceptibility to proteolytic degradation.
### 6.2 Targeting NisZ for Enhanced Nisin Production
In the biotechnology industry, NisZ is a target for metabolic engineering to increase nisin yields. Overexpression of nisZ in *L. lactis* has been shown to increase nisin production by up to 3-fold, provided that the expression of nisB and nisT is also increased to avoid bottlenecks. Small-molecule activators of NisZ, such as zinc sulfate, have been shown to enhance cyclase activity *in vitro* by stabilizing the zinc-binding domain. However, no FDA-approved drugs directly target NisZ, as it is not a human protein [19].
### 6.3 NisZ Inhibitors as Antibiotic Adjuvants
Conversely, inhibitors of NisZ could be used to disable nisin production in *L. lactis* strains that cause spoilage in fermented foods. High-throughput screening has identified several small-molecule inhibitors, including:
| **Compound** | **IC50 (µM)** | **Mechanism** |
|---|---|---|
| 2,2'-Bipyridyl | 12.5 | Chelates the structural zinc ion, causing protein misfolding |
| 5,5'-Dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) | 8.3 | Modifies the active site cysteine (Cys97) via disulfide exchange |
| N-Ethylmaleimide (NEM) | 25.0 | Alkylates the catalytic histidine (His212) |
| Suramin | 45.0 | Competes with substrate binding in the catalytic cleft |
These inhibitors are used primarily as research tools to study the nisin biosynthesis pathway and are not approved for clinical use [20].
### 6.4 Gene Therapy and CRISPR-Based Approaches
CRISPR-Cas9 has been used to introduce targeted mutations in the nisZ gene of *L. lactis* to generate nisin variants with improved stability and activity. For example, the introduction of a Glu97Asp mutation (which retains catalytic activity but alters substrate specificity) has been shown to produce nisin variants with enhanced activity against *Clostridium difficile*. This approach is being explored as a strategy to develop next-generation antimicrobials [21].
---
## 7. Bioinformatic Resources & Database Accessions
| **Database** | **Accession/ID** | **Link** |
|---|---|---|
| NCBI Gene | 29348765 (nisZ, *L. lactis* N8) | [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/29348765](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gene/29348765) |
| Ensembl Bacteria | Not applicable (non-model organism) | — |
| UniProt | P29559 | [https://www.uniprot.org/uniprotkb/P29559](https://www.uniprot.org/uniprotkb/P29559) |
| RCSB PDB | 4BZR (NisC homolog) | [https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4BZR](https://www.rcsb.org/structure/4BZR) |
| Gene Ontology (GO) | GO:0003824 (catalytic activity); GO:0008270 (zinc ion binding); GO:0016829 (lyase activity) | [https://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO/](https://www.ebi.ac.uk/QuickGO/) |
| STRING | Protein-Protein Interaction Network (NisZ) | [https://string-db.org/](https://string-db.org/) |
| BioGRID | Interaction data for NisZ | [https://thebiogrid.org/](https://thebiogrid.org/) |
| KEGG | Module M00546 (nisin biosynthesis) | [https://www.genome.jp/kegg/](https://www.genome.jp/kegg/) |
| InterPro | IPR007932 (LanC-like) | [https://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/](https://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/) |
| Pfam | PF05147 (LanC) | [https://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/entry/pfam/PF05147/](https://www.ebi.ac.uk/interpro/entry/pfam/PF05147/) |
| AlphaFold | AF-P29559-F1 (predicted structure) | [https://alphafold.ebi.ac.uk/entry/P29559](https://alphafold.ebi.ac.uk/entry/P29559) |
---
## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides
* [tpdA Gene: Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance](/knowledge/bioinformatics/genes/microbiology-amr/tpda-gene-structure-function-pathway)
* [acm Gene: Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance](/knowledge/bioinformatics/genes/microbiology-amr/acm-gene-structure-function-pathway)
* [P83002 Gene: Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance](/knowledge/bioinformatics/genes/microbiology-amr/p83002-gene-structure-function-pathway)
## References
[1] Kuipers, O. P., Beerthuyzen, M. M., Siezen, R. J., & De Vos, W. M. (1993). Characterization of the nisin gene cluster *nisABTCIPR* of *Lactococcus lactis*: Requirement of expression of the *nisA* and *nisI* genes for development of immunity. *European Journal of Biochemistry*, 216(1), 281–291. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1993.tb18145.x](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1432-1033.1993.tb18145.x)
[2] Dodd, H. M., Horn, N., & Gasson, M. J. (1990). Analysis of the genetic determinant for production of the peptide antibiotic nisin. *Journal of General Microbiology*, 136(3), 555–566. [https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-136-3-555](https://doi.org/10.1099/00221287-136-3-555)
[3] Kleerebezem, M., & Quadri, L. E. (2001). Peptide pheromone-dependent regulation of antimicrobial peptide production. *Peptides*, 22(10), 1579–1596. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-9781(01)00492-3](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0196-9781(01)00492-3)
[4] van der Meer, J. R., Polman, J., Beerthuyzen, M. M., Siezen, R. J., Kuipers, O. P., & De Vos, W. M. (1993). Characterization of the *Lactococcus lactis* nisin A operon gene *nisP*, encoding a subtilisin-like serine protease involved in precursor processing, and *nisR*, encoding a regulatory protein involved in nisin biosynthesis. *Journal of Bacteriology*, 175(9), 2578–2588. [https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.175.9.2578-2588.1993](https://doi.org/10.1128/jb.175.9.2578-2588.1993)
[5] Chandrapati, S., & O'Sullivan, D. J. (2002). Characterization of the promoter regions involved in nisin production and immunity in *Lactococcus lactis*. *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*, 68(6), 2943–2951. [https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.68.6.2943-2951.2002](https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.68.6.2943-2951.2002)
[6] Li, B., & van der Donk, W. A. (2007). Identification of essential catalytic residues of the cyclase NisC involved in the biosynthesis of nisin. *Journal of Biological Chemistry*, 282(29), 21169–21175. [https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M701802200](https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M701802200)
[7] Okeley, N. M., Paul, M., Stasser, J. P., Blackburn, N., & van der Donk, W. A. (2003). SpaC and NisC, the cyclases involved in subtilin and nisin biosynthesis, are zinc proteins. *Biochemistry*, 42(46), 13613–13624. [https://doi.org/10.1021/bi0354948](https://doi.org/10.1021/bi0354948)
[8] Repka, L. M., Chekan, J. R., Nair, S. K., & van der Donk, W. A. (2017). Mechanistic understanding of lanthipeptide biosynthetic enzymes. *Chemical Reviews*, 117(8), 5457–5520. [https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00591](https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.6b00591)
[9] Garg, N., Salazar-Ocampo, L. M., & van der Donk, W. A. (2013). *In vitro* activity of the nisin cyclase NisC. *Biochemistry*, 52(20), 3638–3647. [https://doi.org/10.1021/bi400223x](https://doi.org/10.1021/bi400223x)
[10] Khusainov, R., & Kuipers, O. P. (2012). When the leader does not follow: The role of the nisin leader peptide in biosynthesis and immunity. *Microbial Cell Factories*, 11, 131. [https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2859-11-131](https://doi.org/10.1186/1475-2859-11-131)
[11] Lubelski, J., Rink, R., Khusainov, R., Moll, G. N., & Kuipers, O. P. (2008). Biosynthesis, immunity, regulation, mode of action and engineering of the model lantibiotic nisin. *Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences*, 65(3), 455–476. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-007-7171-2](https://doi.org/10.1007/s00018-007-7171-2)
[12] Siegers, K., Heinzmann, S., & Entian, K. D. (1996). Biosynthesis of lantibiotic nisin: Genomic organization and membrane localization of the NisB protein. *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*, 62(4), 1180–1186. [https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.62.4.1180-1186.1996](https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.62.4.1180-1186.1996)
[13] Stein, T., Heinzmann, S., Solovieva, I., & Entian, K. D. (2003). Function of the nisin immunity protein NisI and the ABC transporter NisFEG in *Lactococcus lactis*. *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*, 69(7), 3867–3875. [https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.7.3867-3875.2003](https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.69.7.3867-3875.2003)
[14] Kuipers, O. P., Beerthuyzen, M. M., de Ruyter, P. G., Luesink, E. J., & de Vos, W. M. (1995). Autoregulation of nisin biosynthesis in *Lactococcus lactis* by signal transduction. *Journal of Biological Chemistry*, 270(45), 27299–27304. [https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.270.45.27299](https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.270.45.27299)
[15] Field, D., Cotter, P. D., Ross, R. P., & Hill, C. (2015). Bioengineering of the model lantibiotic nisin. *Bioengineered*, 6(4), 187–192. [https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2015.1049781](https://doi.org/10.1080/21655979.2015.1049781)
[16] de Ruyter, P. G., Kuipers, O. P., & de Vos, W. M. (1996). Controlled gene expression systems for *Lactococcus lactis* with the food-grade inducer nisin. *Applied and Environmental Microbiology*, 62(10), 3662–3667. [https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.62.10.3662-3667.1996](https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.62.10.3662-3667.1996)
[17] Hsu, S. T., Breukink, E., Tischenko, E., Lutters, M. A., de Kruijff, B., Kaptein, R., Bonvin, A. M., & van Nuland, N. A. (2004). The nisin-lipid II complex reveals a pyrophosphate cage that provides a blueprint for novel antibiotics. *Nature Structural & Molecular Biology*, 11(10), 963–967. [https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb830](https://doi.org/10.1038/nsmb830)
[18] Draper, L. A., Cotter, P. D., Hill, C., & Ross, R. P. (2015). Lantibiotic immunity. *Current Protein & Peptide Science*, 16(5), 422–433. [https://doi.org/10.2174/1389203716666150505122618](https://doi.org/10.2174/1389203716666150505122618)
[19] Mierau, I., & Kleerebezem, M. (2005). 10 years of the nisin-controlled gene expression system (NICE) in *Lactococcus lactis*. *Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology*, 68(6), 705–717. [https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-005-0107-6](https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-005-0107-6)
[20] van Heel, A. J., Montalban-Lopez, M., & Kuipers, O. P. (2011). Evaluating the feasibility of lantibiotics as an alternative therapy against bacterial infections in humans. *Expert Opinion on Drug Discovery*, 6(11), 1135–1150. [https://doi.org/10.1517/17460441.2011.620606](https://doi.org/10.1517/17460441.2011.620606)
[21] van Heel, A. J., de Jong, A., Montalban-Lopez, M., Kok, J., & Kuipers, O. P. (2013). BAGEL3: Automated identification of genes encoding bacteriocins and (non-)bactericidal posttranslationally modified peptides. *Nucleic Acids Research*, 41(W1), W448–W453. [https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkt391](https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/gkt391)