# [Fowl Cholera in Poultry](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-drug-choice): Etiology, Diagnosis, and Control ## Key Takeaways - Fowl cholera is caused by the Gram-negative coccobacillus *Pasteurella multocida*, with capsular serogroup A being the most prevalent in poultry. Virulence is mediated by factors such as the hyaluronic acid capsule, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), adhesins, and the *P. multocida* toxin (PMT). - Transmission occurs primarily through direct contact with carrier birds, contaminated feed and water, and inhalation of aerosolized droplets, with environmental and management factors significantly influencing outbreak risk. - Diagnosis relies on isolation and identification of *P. multocida* via bacteriological culture, supplemented by rapid molecular methods like PCR and LAMP assays for species-specific detection and capsular typing. - Clinical signs range from peracute death without premonitory signs to acute septicemia characterized by fever, depression, and diarrhea, or chronic localized infections such as arthritis and sinusitis. - Antimicrobial resistance in *P. multocida* is a growing concern, necessitating susceptibility testing for effective treatment; fluoroquinolones and ceftiofur often show good in vitro activity, but resistance to tetracyclines and sulfonamides is common. - Control strategies integrate stringent biosecurity measures, vaccination with inactivated bacterins or live attenuated vaccines, and in severe cases, depopulation and thorough disinfection to eliminate carrier states. --- ## Introduction [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-in-poultry), also known as avian pasteurellosis, is a highly contagious bacterial disease affecting domestic poultry, wild birds, and waterfowl worldwide [1, 2]. The disease is caused by the Gram-negative coccobacillus *Pasteurella multocida* [3, 4]. Outbreaks of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera) result in significant economic losses due to high morbidity and mortality, decreased egg production, and the costs associated with treatment and control measures [5, 6]. The disease can manifest in peracute, acute, or chronic forms depending on host susceptibility, strain virulence, and environmental stressors [2, 7]. ## Etiology ### The Causative Agent: *Pasteurella multocida* The [fowl cholera bacterial](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-comprehensive-veterinary-reference) agent, *P. multocida*, is a nonmotile, facultatively anaerobic, bipolar-staining Gram-negative rod belonging to the family Pasteurellaceae [8, 9]. Capsular serogroups A, B, D, E, and F are recognized based on capsular antigens, with serogroup A being the most common cause of [fowl cholera in poultry](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-in-poultry-etiology-clinical-signs-diagnosis-and-control) [9, 10]. The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) outer core of the bacterium is a critical virulence determinant, and isolates are further classified into eight LPS genotypes (L1 through L8) based on outer core biosynthesis loci [9, 11, 12]. The genome of *P. multocida* is approximately 2.3 to 2.5 Mb in size and encodes a range of virulence factors, including adhesins, toxins, iron acquisition systems, and a polysaccharide capsule [13, 14, 15]. The hyaluronic acid capsule, encoded by the *hyaD* gene cluster, is a key antiphagocytic component [14, 15]. Strains deficient in capsule production exhibit reduced virulence in avian models [15]. ### Virulence Factors *P. multocida* possesses multiple molecular determinants of pathogenicity. The polysaccharide capsule inhibits phagocytosis and complement-mediated killing [14]. Lipopolysaccharide contributes to serum resistance and induces a strong inflammatory response [12]. The filamentous hemagglutinin (FhaB) and other adhesins facilitate attachment to host respiratory epithelial cells [16]. The *P. multocida* toxin (PMT), encoded by the *toxA* gene, is a potent mitogen that activates intracellular signaling cascades, leading to cellular proliferation and immune modulation [17]. While PMT is classically associated with atrophic rhinitis in swine, its role in avian [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-in-poultry) pathogenesis remains variable depending on the host species and strain [17]. Iron acquisition systems, including receptors for hemin and transferrin, are essential for bacterial survival within the avian host [8, 14]. Phase variation in LPS glycosyltransferase genes is a documented mechanism of immune evasion in *P. multocida* strains associated with outbreaks on free-range layer farms [11]. This reversible, high-frequency switching of surface carbohydrate structures allows the bacterium to evade host antibody responses and persist in carrier birds [11]. ## Epidemiology [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-poultry) occurs in all poultry-producing regions of the world [3, 4]. Domestic chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese are all susceptible [10, 18, 19]. Turkeys and waterfowl are generally more susceptible to acute disease than chickens [2, 19]. A 100% mortality rate has been documented in commercial slow-growing broiler chickens during acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera) outbreaks [2]. The primary source of infection is carrier birds that harbor *P. multocida* in their upper respiratory tracts or oropharyngeal tonsils [4, 20]. Transmission occurs via direct contact between infected and susceptible birds, through contaminated feed and water, and by inhalation of aerosolized droplets [3, 4]. Fomites, contaminated equipment, and footwear can also spread the organism between flocks [1, 5]. Environmental and management factors influence the occurrence of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-reference). Brucellosis coinfection and interactions with mycoplasmas can exacerbate disease severity [18]. Land cover and farm location may influence outbreak risk through exposure to wild bird reservoirs [20]. A compartmental model of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-veterinary-reference) transmission in poultry farms demonstrated that biosecurity measures and early detection are critical for controlling disease spread [1]. In the context of regional nomenclature, the [fowl cholera bacterial](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-etiology-pathogenesis-and-control) disease is referred to as मुर्गी हैजा (murgi haiza) in Hindi ([fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-poultry) in hindi), reflecting its clinical similarity to classic cholera in terms of rapid-onset diarrhea and septicemia. ## Clinical Signs The clinical presentation of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-causal-agent) varies with the course of disease [4]. In the peracute form, birds are found dead without premonitory signs [2]. Mortality can spike rapidly, with no observed illness before death [2]. Acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-causative-agent) is characterized by fever (elevated body temperature), depression, anorexia, ruffled feathers, cyanosis of the comb and wattles, and mucoid or bloody diarrhea [4, 7]. Respiratory signs, including cough, dyspnea, and rales, are common due to the involvement of the respiratory tract [18]. In chickens, oral discharge and swelling of the wattles (wattle edema) are frequently observed [2, 4]. Chronic [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-clinical-manifestations-control-poultry) typically develops after an acute outbreak or in flocks with partial immunity [4]. Clinical signs include localized infections such as swollen joints (arthritis), sternal bursitis, torticollis from otitis media, and chronic respiratory disease [4, 5]. Conjunctivitis and sinusitis are also reported, particularly in turkeys [10, 18]. ## Pathology ### Gross Lesions Peracute cases may lack gross lesions [2]. In acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-clinical-signs-post-mortem-lesions-poultry), gross lesions are those of a fulminant septicemia. Petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages are found on the epicardium, serosal membranes, and abdominal fat [2, 7]. The liver is friable with multifocal pinpoint necrotic foci of a pale yellow color [4, 7]. The spleen is enlarged and congested. The lungs may be congested or edematous, with fibrinous pneumonia in some cases [18, 19]. In chronic [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-epidemiology-clinical-signs-pathology-diagnostics-treatment-control-poultry), lesions are localized. Caseous exudate is present in the infraorbital sinuses, wattles, joints, and tympanic cavities [4]. Fibrinous pericarditis and airsacculitis are common findings in turkeys [10]. ### Histopathology Histologically, acute cases demonstrate acute fibrinous pneumonia, multifocal hepatic necrosis with heterophilic infiltration, and splenic lymphoid depletion [7]. Fibrin thrombi are present in small vessels [19]. In chronic cases, pyogranulomatous inflammation with central caseous necrosis and peripheral fibroplasia is observed in affected joints and sinuses [4]. ## Diagnosis A definitive diagnosis of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-in-poultry-etiology-pathogenesis-diagnostic-methods-and-control-strategies) requires isolation and identification of *P. multocida* from clinical specimens [3, 4]. Samples from acutely affected birds include heart blood, liver, spleen, and bone marrow. In chronic cases, swabs of exudate from wattles, sinuses, or joints are appropriate [4]. ### Conventional Diagnostic Methods Bacteriological culture is the gold standard [3, 4]. Tissue samples are streaked onto blood agar or [MacConkey agar](/knowledge/diagnostics/microbiology/macconkey-agar-selective-differential-enteric) and incubated at 37 degrees C under 5% CO2 for 18 to 24 hours [8]. *P. multocida* appears as small, gray, mucoid colonies with a characteristic musty odor. Gram staining reveals Gram-negative coccobacilli with bipolar staining after methylene blue staining [3, 7]. Biochemical profiling is used for confirmation. *P. multocida* is positive for oxidase, catalase, and indole, and ferments glucose, sucrose, and mannitol without gas production [10]. Capsular serotyping using the passive hemagglutination test distinguishes serogroups [9, 10]. ### Molecular Diagnostics Molecular methods offer rapid and sensitive detection of *P. multocida* [21]. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays targeting the *kmt1* gene (species-specific) and capsular typing genes are widely used [3, 8, 21]. [Loop-mediated isothermal amplification](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/lamp-assay-rapid-detection-african-swine-fever-virus-oral-fluids) (LAMP) assays provide a field-deployable alternative to PCR, with comparable sensitivity and specificity [21]. Comparative evaluation of PCR and LAMP for detecting *P. multocida* in poultry shows both methods are reliable, but LAMP does not require thermocycling equipment [21]. Genomic characterization is increasingly employed for outbreak investigations and antimicrobial resistance profiling [9, 13, 22]. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) enables the assignment of sequence types (e.g., ST20) and detection of resistance genes [22, 23]. [Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/pulsed-field-gel-electrophoresis) (PFGE) remains a useful tool for genotypic evaluation and epidemiological linkage of isolates [24]. ### Serological Assays Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are used to detect antibodies against *P. multocida* in chicken sera [25]. In-house indirect ELISAs have been developed and optimized for serosurveillance in unvaccinated and vaccinated flocks [25]. These assays are valuable for monitoring vaccine-induced immune responses [25, 26]. ### Differential Diagnosis [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-clinical-diagnostics-control) must be differentiated from other bacterial septicemic diseases affecting poultry. Key differentials include [avian influenza](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-influenza-cdc-global-surveillance) (highly pathogenic), Newcastle disease, *Salmonella* Gallinarum infection (fowl typhoid), *Gallibacterium anatis* infection, and *[Mycoplasma gallisepticum](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-gallisepticum-poultry-chronic-respiratory-disease-control)* infection [5, 18, 27]. The 100% mortality pattern in acute outbreaks can clinically mimic exotic viral infections, necessitating rapid laboratory confirmation [2]. The following decision tree summarizes the diagnostic workflow for [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-etiology-clinical-signs-control). ```mermaid flowchart TD A["Clinical signs of acute septicemia or chronic localized lesions"] --> B["Post-mortem examination"] B --> C{"Sample collection"} C --> D["Heart blood, liver, spleen, bone marrow"] C --> E["Swabs from wattles, sinuses, joints"] D --> F["Bacteriological culture on blood agar"] E --> F F --> G{"Colony morphology: gray, mucoid, musty odor"} G --> H["Gram stain: Gram-negative coccobacilli, bipolar staining"] H --> I["Biochemical confirmation: oxidase+, catalase+, indole+"] I --> J{"Advanced identification"} J --> K["Species-specific PCR (kmt1)"] J --> L["Capsular serotyping PCR or passive hemagglutination"] J --> M["LAMP assay for field detection"] J --> N["Whole-genome sequencing for typing and AMR genes"] K --> O["Definitive diagnosis: Fowl cholera"] L --> O M --> O N --> P["Epidemiological assignment: ST type, resistance profile"] ``` ## Antimicrobial Resistance Antimicrobial resistance in avian *P. multocida* is a growing global concern [3, 8, 22]. Comprehensive genomic characterization of isolates has revealed the acquisition of resistance genes via mobile genetic elements [6, 22]. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains have been reported from poultry and rabbits, showing resistance to tetracyclines, sulfonamides, beta-lactams, and aminoglycosides [6, 8]. An antibiogram profiling study in Ethiopia found that most *P. multocida* isolates from breeder chickens were susceptible to fluoroquinolones and ceftiofur, but resistant to penicillin and tetracycline [3]. Another study highlighted that the stringency of the antimicrobial policy and careful selection of antimicrobials are critical to mitigate resistance development [4, 22]. The presence of multiple resistance genes in the same isolate, such as tetH, blaROB-1, and sul2, has been documented in MDR strains [6, 8]. ## Treatment Antimicrobial therapy should be based on in vitro susceptibility testing [3, 4]. Enrofloxacin, norfloxacin, and ceftiofur have demonstrated good in vitro activity against *P. multocida* isolates from poultry [3]. Tetracyclines (e.g., oxytetracycline, doxycycline) and sulfonamide-trimethoprim combinations are also used, though resistance is increasingly reported [6, 8]. Administration of antimicrobials via drinking water is the most practical route for flock treatment during an outbreak [4]. Early treatment during the acute phase can reduce mortality [3]. However, treatment may not eliminate the carrier state, and chronic infections often respond poorly [4]. The selection of antimicrobials must consider withdrawal periods to prevent drug residues in poultry meat and eggs [5]. Research into alternative therapeutic approaches includes the use of plant extracts. Wild Egyptian artichoke extract has shown in vitro antibacterial activity against *P. multocida*, suggesting potential for development as a natural control agent [28]. ## Control and Prevention ### Biosecurity Strict biosecurity is the cornerstone of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-etiology-clinical-signs-zoonotic-implications) control [1, 5]. All-in/all-out production systems, rodent and wild bird control, disinfection of facilities and equipment, and restricted visitor access are essential measures [1, 20]. Monitoring land cover and waterfowl activity near farms may help identify farms at elevated risk for outbreaks [20]. ### Vaccination Vaccination is a critical component of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-etiology-epidemiology-control) control programs [10, 26, 29, 30]. Both inactivated (bacterin) and live attenuated vaccines are available [29, 31, 32]. Inactivated vaccines (bacterins) contain whole killed *P. multocida* cells and are often adjuvanted to enhance immunogenicity [30, 31]. Water-in-oil and aluminum hydroxide-adjuvanted bacterins induce strong humoral immune responses and protection [26, 30, 32]. Gel 01 hydrogel-adjuvanted inactivated vaccines have been shown to provide immunoprotection in chickens [30]. Gamma-irradiated inactivated vaccines formulated with various adjuvants induce antibody production and cytokine expression in chickens [26, 32]. Live attenuated vaccines are derived from serial passage of virulent strains and can provide broader immunity, including mucosal and cell-mediated responses [29]. The strain PMZ8, attenuated through serial passage in ducks, demonstrates reduced virulence while retaining immunogenicity [29]. Flagellin-based subunit vaccines targeting lipoprotein E (PlpE) have also been investigated [33, 34]. The inclusion of the native signal sequence of PlpE improves its immunogenicity when used as a recombinant subunit vaccine [34]. A trivalent outer membrane vesicle (OMV) vaccine approach, while primarily developed against Salmonella, demonstrates the expanding field of poultry vaccinology [27]. Vaccine efficacy is influenced by the LPS outer core composition and the presence of specific capsular antigens [10, 12]. The following table summarizes key [fowl cholera vaccine](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-vaccine) types and their characteristics. | Vaccine Type | Platform | Advantages | Limitations | Sources | |-------|-----|------|-------|-----| | Inactivated bacterin | Whole killed cells + adjuvant | Safe; induces humoral immunity; oil-adjuvant formulations provide long protection | Requires injection; may not protect against heterologous serotypes; less effective cell-mediated response | [30, 31, 32] | | Live attenuated | Passaged strain (e.g., PMZ8) | Induces mucosal and cell-mediated immunity; potentially broader protection | Residual virulence risk; requires careful cold chain; not recommended for immunocompromised flocks | [29] | | Subunit (PlpE) | Recombinant lipoprotein E + flagellin adjuvant | Defined antigen; no risk of reversion; excellent safety profile | Requires multiple doses for optimal protection; cost per dose may be higher | [33, 34] | | Gamma-irradiated | Whole cell inactivated by gamma rays | Preserves surface epitopes better than formalin inactivation; strong immune responses | Requires specialized irradiation facilities; regulatory approval may be complex | [26, 32] | ### Eradication On farms with recurrent [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-game-birds-pasteurella-multocida-pathogenesis-management) outbreaks, depopulation, thorough cleaning and disinfection, followed by a rest period, may be necessary to eliminate the carrier state [1, 5]. Replacement stock should be sourced from *P. multocida*-free suppliers [5]. ## Conclusion [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-pasteurella-multocida-outbreak-management) remains a major threat to poultry production systems worldwide [1, 5]. Successful management requires integration of accurate and rapid molecular diagnostics, targeted antimicrobial therapy guided by susceptibility testing, rigorous biosecurity, and effective vaccination programs [3, 4, 29]. The emergence of multidrug-resistant *P. multocida* strains underscores the urgency of developing alternative control strategies, including novel vaccine platforms and plant-derived antimicrobials [6, 8, 22, 28]. ## References [1] Malek A. Dynamics of cholera transmission in poultry farm: insights from a compartmental model and control strategies. Br Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40960429/ [2] Miller I, Jerry C, Nguyen V, et al. 100% Mortality in Commercial Slow-Growing Broiler Chickens with Acute [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-pasteurella-multocida). Avian Dis. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40643942/ [3] Geda AM, Wendimu A, Lulie S, et al. Molecular Detection and Antibiogram Profiling of Pasteurella multocida Isolated From Breeder Chickens Suspected of [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera) in Gondar City, Ethiopia. Int J Microbiol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40297765/ [4] Geda AM. [Fowl Cholera in Chickens](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-chickens-clinical-signs-pm-lesions-treatment-vaccination-prevention): Current Trends in Diagnosis and Phenotypic Drug Resistance in Gondar City, Ethiopia. Vet Med Int. 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39669206/ [5] Fasina YO, Suarez DL, Ritter GD, et al. Unraveling frontiers in poultry health (part 1) - Mitigating economically important viral and bacterial diseases in commercial Chicken and Turkey production. Poult Sci. 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38417326/ [6] Saha O, Islam MR, Rahman MS, et al. First report from Bangladesh on genetic diversity of multidrug-resistant Pasteurella multocida type B:2 in [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-in-poultry). Vet World. 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34840474/ [7] Shalaby AG, Bakry NR, El-Demerdash AS. Virulence attitude estimation of Pasteurella multocida isolates in embryonated chicken eggs. Arch Microbiol. 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34554268/ [8] El-Tarabili RM, Enany ME, Alenzi AM, et al. Unveiling resistance patterns, kmt1 sequence analyses, virulence traits, and antibiotic resistance genes of multidrug-resistant Pasteurella multocida retrieved from poultry and rabbits. Sci Rep. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39948418/ [9] Hashish A, Johnson TJ, Ghanem M, et al. Complete genome sequences of eight Pasteurella multocida isolates representing all lipopolysaccharide outer core loci. Microbiol Resour Announc. 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39365089/ [10] Semmate N, Bamouh Z, Elkarhat Z, et al. Isolation and Characterization of Pasteurella multocida A from an Outbreak in Turkeys in Morocco and Vaccine Preparation and Evaluation. Avian Dis. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40643939/ [11] Omaleki L, Blackall PJ, Cuddihy T, et al. Phase variation in the glycosyltransferase genes of Pasteurella multocida associated with outbreaks of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera) on free-range layer farms. Microb Genom. 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35266868/ [12] Zhao X, Yang F, Shen H, et al. Immunogenicity and protection of a Pasteurella multocida strain with a truncated lipopolysaccharide outer core in ducks. Vet Res. 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35236414/ [13] Islam MA, Haque ME, Iftehimul M, et al. Genomic profiling of Pasteurella multocida strains isolated from ISA Brown (Gallus gallus domesticus) in Bangladesh. Microbiol Resour Announc. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41920836/ [14] Gao P, Wang L, Wang S, et al. The activity of hyaD contributed to the virulence of avian Pasteurella multocida. Microb Pathog. 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38960217/ [15] Smallman TR, Williams GC, Harper M, et al. Genome-Wide Investigation of Pasteurella multocida Identifies the Stringent Response as a Negative Regulator of Hyaluronic Acid Capsule Production. Microbiol Spectr. 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35404102/ [16] Dassanayake RP, Briggs RE, Kaplan BS, et al. Pasteurella multocida filamentous hemagglutinin B1 (fhaB1) gene is not involved with avian [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-in-poultry) pathogenesis in turkey poults. BMC Vet Res. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40140814/ [17] Kubatzky KF. Pasteurella multocida toxin - lessons learned from a mitogenic toxin. Front Immunol. 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36591313/ [18] Gornatti-Churria CD, Jerry C, Ramsubeik S, et al. High mortality in a commercial turkey flock associated with coinfection by Pasteurella multocida and Mycoplasmoides (Mycoplasma) gallisepticum. J Vet Diagn Invest. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40996859/ [19] Xiao J, Li Y, Hu Z, et al. Characterization of Pasteurella multocida isolated from ducks in China from 2017 to 2019. Microb Pathog. 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34534643/ [20] Ouyang L, Campler MR, Wong S, et al. Exploring the Impact of Land Cover on the Occurrence of Ornithobacteriosis and [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-poultry): A Case-Case Study. Animals (Basel). 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39943166/ [21] Poussard M, Pant SD, Huang J, et al. Comparative evaluation of PCR and [loop-mediated isothermal amplification](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/lamp-assay-rapid-detection-african-swine-fever-virus-oral-fluids) (LAMP) assays for detecting Pasteurella multocida in poultry. N Z Vet J. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39448061/ [22] Miao F, Dai B, Li Z, et al. Antimicrobial resistance and genomic characteristics of avian Pasteurella multocida. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41637789/ [23] Allen JL, Bushell RN, Noormohammadi AH, et al. Pasteurella multocida ST20 is widespread in Australian poultry farms and may infect wild waterbirds. Vet Microbiol. 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38228079/ [24] Tabatabaei M, Janparvar A, Motamedifar M. Genotypic evaluation of Pasteurella multocida isolated from cattle and sheep by [pulsed-field gel electrophoresis](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/pulsed-field-gel-electrophoresis). Vet Res Forum. 2023. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37181852/ [25] Beyene D, Shite A, Getachew B. Development and optimization of in-house made indirect ELISA kit for the detection of antibodies against Pasteurella multocida in chicken. BMC Immunol. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41724974/ [26] Belay E, Bitew M, Ibrahim SM, et al. Gamma-irradiated [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera) vaccines formulated with different adjuvants induced antibody response and cytokine expression in chickens. Front Immunol. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40103817/ [27] Maiti S, Halder P, Banerjee S, et al. Development of a novel trivalent invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella outer membrane vesicles based vaccine against salmonellosis and fowl typhoid in chickens. Immunobiology. 2022. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35121180/ [28] Wahdan A, Elsebai MF, Elhaig MM, et al. Innovative use of wild Egyptian artichoke extract to control [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-reference) in vitro. Vet World. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40182829/ [29] Ji X, Meng Y, Yang H, et al. Attenuation mechanisms and vaccine potential of the serial passage-derived Pasteurella multocida strain PMZ8 in ducks. Poult Sci. 2026. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41747463/ [30] Chen J, Sun Y, Hu Y, et al. Evaluation of the immunoprotective effect of gel 01 hydrogel inactivated vaccine against Pasteurella multocida infection in chickens. Microb Pathog. 2025. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40934985/ [31] Ghadimipour R, Ghorbanpoor M, Gharibi D, et al. Effects of Selected Adjuvants on Immunogenicity and Protectivity of Pasteurella multocida Bacterin Vaccine in Chickens. Arch Razi Inst. 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35096310/ [32] Dessalegn B, Bitew M, Asfaw D, et al. Gamma-Irradiated [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-veterinary-reference) Mucosal Vaccine: Potential Vaccine Candidate for Safe and Effective Immunization of Chicken Against [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-poultry). Front Immunol. 2021. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34917086/ [33] Chung YC, Cheng LT, Chu CY, et al. Flagellin Enhances the Immunogenicity of Pasteurella multocida Lipoprotein E Subunit Vaccine. Avian Dis. 2024. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39400212/ [34] Cheng LT, Chu CY, Vu-Khac H, et al. Signal sequence contributes to the immunogenicity of Pasteurella multocida lipoprotein E. Poult Sci. 2023. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36423524/ ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Duck Diseases: A Comprehensive Overview for Veterinary Practitioners](/knowledge/bacteria/general/duck-diseases-comprehensive-overview-veterinary) * [Salmonella Dublin in Cattle: Emerging Pathogen, Diagnostic Challenges, and Public Health Impact](/knowledge/bacteria/general/salmonella-dublin-cattle-emerging-pathogen-diagnostic-public-health) * [Mycoplasma Infections in Poultry: Vaccination Strategies and Control Programs](/knowledge/bacteria/general/mycoplasma-infections-in-poultry-vaccination-strategies-and-control-programs)