# [Fowl Cholera (Pasteurella multocida) in Poultry](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-bacterial-poultry): Clinical Signs, Diagnosis, and Control ## Key Takeaways - Fowl cholera is caused by *Pasteurella multocida*, a Gram-negative coccobacillus, with capsular serogroup A and somatic serotypes 1, 3, and 4 being most common in acute poultry infections; virulence is linked to factors like hyaluronic acid capsule production. - Transmission occurs via direct contact, contaminated feed/water, and fomites, with asymptomatic carriers and wild waterbirds acting as reservoirs, and stress factors like overcrowding predisposing birds to disease. - Clinical signs range from peracute sudden death to acute presentations with fever, depression, cyanosis, and diarrhea, and chronic forms characterized by localized lesions such as wattle edema and arthritis. - Diagnosis relies on laboratory confirmation through bacterial isolation and identification (Gram stain, culture, biochemical tests), molecular methods (PCR, LAMP), and serological assays (ELISA) for flock monitoring. - Antimicrobial therapy is most effective early and guided by susceptibility testing, though widespread resistance to tetracyclines, sulfonamides, and beta-lactams necessitates careful drug selection and surveillance. - Control strategies integrate stringent biosecurity, management practices to reduce stress, and vaccination using bacterins or live attenuated vaccines, with ongoing research into subunit and plant-derived alternatives. --- ## Etiology [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-in-poultry) is a contagious bacterial disease of domestic and wild birds caused by *Pasteurella multocida*, a Gram-negative, non-motile, facultatively anaerobic coccobacillus belonging to the family Pasteurellaceae [1, 2]. The bacterium produces a polysaccharide capsule that is a critical virulence factor, and strains are classified into five capsular serogroups (A, B, D, E, F) and 16 somatic lipopolysaccharide (LPS) serotypes [3, 4]. In poultry, capsular serogroup A and somatic serotypes 1, 3, and 4 are most frequently associated with acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera) [5, 6]. The complete genome sequences of *P. multocida* isolates representing all LPS outer core loci have been determined, revealing substantial genetic diversity in the genes governing LPS biosynthesis [4]. Phase variation in glycosyltransferase genes contributes to LPS heterogeneity and is linked to outbreaks on free-range layer farms [7]. The virulence repertoire includes the *Pasteurella multocida* toxin (PMT), a potent mitogenic protein that activates cellular signaling pathways, though its role in avian disease is less pronounced than in porcine atrophic rhinitis [8]. Filamentous hemagglutinin (FhaB1) is not essential for pathogenesis in turkey poults [9], whereas hyaluronic acid capsule production, regulated by the stringent response via the *hyaD* gene, is a key determinant of virulence [10, 11]. The stringent response negatively regulates capsule production, thereby modulating immune evasion [11]. Isolates from poultry frequently carry multiple antimicrobial resistance genes and virulence-associated genes, including those encoding adhesins, iron acquisition systems, and toxins [3, 12]. Capsular type B:2 strains with multidrug resistance have been reported in Bangladesh [12]. ## Epidemiology [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-in-poultry) occurs worldwide and affects chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and many wild bird species [1, 13, 14]. Turkeys are particularly susceptible to acute outbreaks, often with high morbidity and mortality [5, 13]. In commercial slow-growing broiler chickens, mortality can reach 100% in acute cases [5]. Coinfection with *Mycoplasmoides gallisepticum* has been associated with very high mortality in turkey flocks [13]. The bacterium is shed in oral and nasal secretions and feces, and transmission occurs via direct contact, contaminated feed, water, and fomites [15, 16]. Asymptomatic carrier birds, including recovered birds and healthy birds harboring *P. multocida* in the pharyngeal tonsils, serve as reservoirs [14, 17]. Wild waterbirds may act as a source of infection for poultry, as demonstrated by the widespread sequence type ST20 in Australian poultry farms that also infects wild waterbirds [14]. Land cover characteristics, such as proximity to water bodies and forested areas, influence the occurrence of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-poultry) [18]. Compartmental models of transmission dynamics indicate that infection spreads rapidly through susceptible flocks in the absence of control measures [15]. Stress factors including overcrowding, poor ventilation, nutritional deficiencies, and concurrent infections predispose birds to clinical disease [16, 17]. ## Clinical Signs The clinical presentation of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera) ranges from peracute to chronic forms, depending on the virulence of the strain, host susceptibility, and route of exposure [5, 16, 19]. Peracute disease is characterized by sudden death in apparently healthy birds, often with no premonitory signs [5]. Acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-reference) presents with fever, depression, anorexia, ruffled feathers, cyanosis of the comb and wattles, oral and nasal mucous discharge, dyspnea, and diarrhea [16, 19]. Swelling of the wattles and conjunctivitis are common [5, 16]. Mortality can exceed 50% in untreated flocks [15, 17]. Chronic infection manifests as localized lesions including wattle edema, swollen joints (arthritis), sternal bursitis, torticollis due to otitis media, and conjunctivitis [16, 17]. In layers, a drop in egg production is observed [16]. Ducklings infected with serogroup A strains exhibit similar signs, including lameness and neurological symptoms [6]. ## Pathology Gross pathological findings in acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-veterinary-reference) include generalized congestion and hemorrhage on serosal surfaces, petechiae on the epicardium and abdominal fat, hepatomegaly with multiple pale necrotic foci, splenomegaly, and pulmonary edema [5, 16]. The liver often shows pinpoint necrotic foci, a hallmark of the disease [5, 16]. Hemorrhagic enteritis and fibrinous pericarditis may be present [5]. Chronic cases show caseous exudate in wattles, joints, and tendon sheaths, and occasionally fibrinopurulent meningitis [17]. Histologically, acute lesions consist of multifocal hepatic necrosis with heterophilic infiltration, fibrin thrombi in small blood vessels, and bacterial emboli in parenchymatous organs [5]. The presence of many short, bipolar-staining rods (safety-pin appearance) in tissue impression smears is suggestive of *P. multocida* infection [16]. ## Diagnosis Definitive diagnosis of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-poultry) requires laboratory confirmation of *P. multocida* infection through bacterial isolation, molecular detection, or serological methods. A diagnostic algorithm is presented in Figure 1. ```mermaid flowchart TD A["Suspected FC based on clinical signs & lesions"] --> B["Collect samples: liver, spleen, bone marrow, wattle exudate"] B --> C{"Direct smear: Gram-negative coccobacilli, bipolar staining?"} C -->|"Positive"| D["Culture on blood agar & MacConkey agar, 37°C, 24h"] C -->|"Negative"| E["Consider other diagnoses (CRD, coryza, salmonellosis, avian influenza)"] D --> F{"Colonies: smooth, iridescent, non-hemolytic?"} F -->|"Positive"| G["Biochemical confirmation: oxidase +, catalase +, indole +"] F -->|"Negative"| H["Re-culture or use selective media"] G --> I{"Molecular confirmation"} I --> J["PCR: kmt1 gene or capsular typing PCR"] I --> K["LAMP assay: faster, same sensitivity"] J --> L["Final diagnosis: positive for P. multocida"] K --> L G --> M["Serology: indirect ELISA for flock antibody monitoring"] M --> L L --> N["Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (disk diffusion / MIC)"] N --> O["Implement control measures: biosecurity, vaccination, treatment"] ``` **Figure 1. Diagnostic workflow for suspected [fowl cholera in poultry](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-drug-choice).** ### Bacterial Isolation and Identification *P. multocida* can be isolated from liver, spleen, bone marrow, heart blood, or wattle exudate of acutely ill or dead birds [16, 19]. Samples are streaked onto blood agar (5% sheep blood) and [MacConkey agar](/knowledge/diagnostics/microbiology/macconkey-agar-selective-differential-enteric) and incubated at 37°C for 24 hours. Colonies are smooth, grayish, and non-hemolytic on blood agar; the bacterium does not grow on MacConkey agar [16]. Biochemical tests reveal positive reactions for oxidase, catalase, indole, and nitrate reduction, and fermentation of glucose and sucrose but not lactose [16]. Bipolar staining with methylene blue or Wright stain is characteristic [16, 19]. ### Molecular Detection Conventional PCR targeting the *kmt1* gene (species-specific) and capsular typing PCR are widely used for confirmation and typing [3, 12, 20]. [Loop-mediated isothermal amplification](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/lamp-assay-rapid-detection-african-swine-fever-virus-oral-fluids) (LAMP) assays offer comparable sensitivity and specificity to PCR with reduced turnaround time and simpler equipment requirements, making them suitable for on-site diagnosis [20]. Genomic profiling and whole-genome sequencing have been applied to characterize outbreak strains and track transmission dynamics [1, 4, 14]. Single nucleotide polymorphism analysis can differentiate closely related isolates [14]. ### Serological Assays Indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) are employed for flock-level seromonitoring, particularly to assess vaccine-induced antibody responses [5, 21]. In-house ELISAs using whole-cell antigens have been developed and optimized for chickens, showing good sensitivity and specificity [21]. Subunit vaccines incorporating lipoprotein E with flagellin adjuvant have been evaluated using ELISA for immunogenicity [5, 22]. Gamma-irradiated vaccines also elicit measurable antibody responses detected by ELISA [23, 24]. ## Treatment Antimicrobial therapy is most effective if initiated early in the course of disease, preferably based on in vitro susceptibility testing [16, 17, 19]. Commonly used antimicrobials include oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, sulfonamides, trimethoprim-sulfonamide combinations, penicillin, and fluoroquinolones [16, 19]. However, antimicrobial resistance is widespread: studies from Ethiopia, Bangladesh, China, and Egypt have reported high frequencies of resistance to tetracyclines, sulfonamides, aminoglycosides, and β-lactams [2, 3, 12, 16, 19]. Multidrug-resistant (MDR) strains harboring resistance genes such as *blaROB-1*, *tetH*, *tetB*, *strA*, *strB*, and *sulII* are common [2, 3]. The emergence of MDR *P. multocida* complicates therapeutic management and underscores the need for routine antimicrobial susceptibility surveillance [2, 16]. Alternative control strategies include the use of probiotics: novel multi-strain probiotics have been shown to reduce [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-causal-agent) mortality in broilers, likely through competitive exclusion and immune modulation [25]. Plant-derived compounds, such as wild Egyptian artichoke extract, exhibit in vitro antibacterial activity against *P. multocida* [26]. ## Control ### Biosecurity and Management Effective control of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-causative-agent) relies on stringent biosecurity measures to prevent introduction and spread of *P. multocida* [15, 17]. Key practices include all-in/all-out flock management, thorough cleaning and disinfection of houses and equipment, control of rodent and feral bird access, and segregation of different age groups [17]. Reduction of environmental stressors such as overcrowding, poor ventilation, and nutritional deficiencies is critical to reduce susceptibility [17]. Compartmental models suggest that culling of infected flocks and quarantine of contacts can substantially reduce transmission [15]. ### Vaccination Vaccination is a cornerstone of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-clinical-manifestations-control-poultry) control in high-risk areas or flocks with a history of outbreaks [2, 5, 27]. Both bacterins (killed whole-cell vaccines) and live attenuated vaccines are available [2, 28]. Bacterins are typically administered parenterally and provide serotype-specific protection; they require two doses and annual boosters [5, 28]. Adjuvants such as oil-in-water emulsions, aluminum hydroxide, and saponin can enhance immunogenicity [23, 24, 28]. Gamma-irradiated vaccines have been developed as safer alternatives to formalin-killed bacterins, as they preserve antigenic structure while inactivating the pathogen [23, 24]. Hydrogel-based inactivated vaccines incorporating gel 01 hydrogel induce robust immune responses and protection in chickens [27]. Live attenuated vaccines derived from serial passage (e.g., PMZ8 strain in ducks) confer strong protection but carry a risk of reversion to virulence [2]. Subunit vaccines targeting lipoprotein E (PlpE) with signal sequences or flagellin as an adjuvant have shown promise in inducing protective immunity in chickens and turkeys [5, 22]. Additionally, a strain with a truncated LPS outer core has been shown to be immunogenic and protective in ducks [29]. ### Integrated and Alternative Strategies Integrated control combining vaccination, biosecurity, antimicrobial stewardship, and health monitoring is recommended [17]. The use of probiotics as feed additives can reduce colonization and mortality [25]. Plant extracts with antibacterial activity represent a potential alternative for treatment or prophylaxis [26]. Farm-level risk assessment and land cover management may help reduce the likelihood of outbreaks [18]. ## References [1] Islam MA, Haque ME, Iftehimul M, et al. Genomic profiling of *Pasteurella multocida* strains isolated from ISA Brown (*Gallus gallus domesticus*) in Bangladesh. *Microbiol Resour Announc*. doi:10.1128/mra.00000-26. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41920836/ [2] Miao F, Dai B, Li Z, et al. Antimicrobial resistance and genomic characteristics of avian *Pasteurella multocida*. *Poult Sci*. doi:10.1016/j.psj.2025.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41637789/ [3] El-Tarabili RM, Enany ME, Alenzi AM, et al. Unveiling resistance patterns, *kmt1* sequence analyses, virulence traits, and antibiotic resistance genes of multidrug-resistant *Pasteurella multocida* retrieved from poultry and rabbits. *Sci Rep*. doi:10.1038/s41598-025-00000-0. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39948418/ [4] Hashish A, Johnson TJ, Ghanem M, et al. Complete genome sequences of eight *Pasteurella multocida* isolates representing all lipopolysaccharide outer core loci. *Microbiol Resour Announc*. doi:10.1128/mra.00000-24. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39365089/ [5] Miller I, Jerry C, Nguyen V, et al. 100% Mortality in Commercial Slow-Growing Broiler Chickens with Acute [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-clinical-signs-post-mortem-lesions-poultry). *Avian Dis*. doi:10.1637/00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40643942/ [6] Xiao J, Li Y, Hu Z, et al. Characterization of *Pasteurella multocida* isolated from ducks in China from 2017 to 2019. *Microb Pathog*. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2021.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34534643/ [7] Omaleki L, Blackall PJ, Cuddihy T, et al. Phase variation in the glycosyltransferase genes of *Pasteurella multocida* associated with outbreaks of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-epidemiology-clinical-signs-pathology-diagnostics-treatment-control-poultry) on free-range layer farms. *Microb Genom*. doi:10.1099/mgen.0.000000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35266868/ [8] Kubatzky KF. *Pasteurella multocida* toxin - lessons learned from a mitogenic toxin. *Front Immunol*. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2022.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36591313/ [9] Dassanayake RP, Briggs RE, Kaplan BS, et al. *Pasteurella multocida* filamentous hemagglutinin B1 (*fhaB1*) gene is not involved with avian [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-in-poultry-etiology-pathogenesis-diagnostic-methods-and-control-strategies) pathogenesis in turkey poults. *BMC Vet Res*. doi:10.1186/s12917-025-00000-0. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40140814/ [10] Gao P, Wang L, Wang S, et al. The activity of *hyaD* contributed to the virulence of avian *Pasteurella multocida*. *Microb Pathog*. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2024.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38960217/ [11] Smallman TR, Williams GC, Harper M, et al. Genome-Wide Investigation of *Pasteurella multocida* Identifies the Stringent Response as a Negative Regulator of Hyaluronic Acid Capsule Production. *Microbiol Spectr*. doi:10.1128/spectrum.00000-22. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35404102/ [12] Saha O, Islam MR, Rahman MS, et al. First report from Bangladesh on genetic diversity of multidrug-resistant *Pasteurella multocida* type B:2 in [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-clinical-diagnostics-control). *Vet World*. doi:10.14202/vetworld.2021.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34840474/ [13] Gornatti-Churria CD, Jerry C, Ramsubeik S, et al. High mortality in a commercial turkey flock associated with coinfection by *Pasteurella multocida* and *Mycoplasmoides* (*Mycoplasma*) *gallisepticum*. *J Vet Diagn Invest*. doi:10.1177/104063872412345. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40996859/ [14] Allen JL, Bushell RN, Noormohammadi AH, et al. *Pasteurella multocida* ST20 is widespread in Australian poultry farms and may infect wild waterbirds. *Vet Microbiol*. doi:10.1016/j.vetmic.2024.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38228079/ [15] Malek A. Dynamics of cholera transmission in poultry farm: insights from a compartmental model and control strategies. *Br Poult Sci*. doi:10.1080/00071668.2024.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40960429/ [16] Geda AM. [Fowl Cholera in Chickens](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-chickens-clinical-signs-pm-lesions-treatment-vaccination-prevention): Current Trends in Diagnosis and Phenotypic Drug Resistance in Gondar City, Ethiopia. *Vet Med Int*. doi:10.1155/2024/00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39669206/ [17] Fasina YO, Suarez DL, Ritter GD, et al. Unraveling frontiers in poultry health (part 1) - Mitigating economically important viral and bacterial diseases in commercial Chicken and Turkey production. *Poult Sci*. doi:10.1016/j.psj.2024.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38417326/ [18] Ouyang L, Campler MR, Wong S, et al. Exploring the Impact of Land Cover on the Occurrence of Ornithobacteriosis and [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-etiology-clinical-signs-control): A Case-Case Study. *Animals (Basel)*. doi:10.3390/ani15030000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39943166/ [19] Geda AM, Wendimu A, Lulie S, et al. Molecular Detection and Antibiogram Profiling of *Pasteurella multocida* Isolated From Breeder Chickens Suspected of [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-etiology-clinical-signs-zoonotic-implications) in Gondar City, Ethiopia. *Int J Microbiol*. doi:10.1155/2025/00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40297765/ [20] Poussard M, Pant SD, Huang J, et al. Comparative evaluation of PCR and [loop-mediated isothermal amplification](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/lamp-assay-rapid-detection-african-swine-fever-virus-oral-fluids) (LAMP) assays for detecting *Pasteurella multocida* in poultry. *N Z Vet J*. doi:10.1080/00480169.2024.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39448061/ [21] Beyene D, Shite A, Getachew B. Development and optimization of in-house made indirect ELISA kit for the detection of antibodies against *Pasteurella multocida* in chicken. *BMC Immunol*. doi:10.1186/s12865-025-00000-0. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41724974/ [22] Cheng LT, Chu CY, Vu-Khac H, et al. Signal sequence contributes to the immunogenicity of *Pasteurella multocida* lipoprotein E. *Poult Sci*. doi:10.1016/j.psj.2023.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36423524/ [23] Belay E, Bitew M, Ibrahim SM, et al. Gamma-irradiated [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-etiology-epidemiology-control) vaccines formulated with different adjuvants induced antibody response and cytokine expression in chickens. *Front Immunol*. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2025.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40103817/ [24] Dessalegn B, Bitew M, Asfaw D, et al. Gamma-Irradiated [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-game-birds-pasteurella-multocida-pathogenesis-management) Mucosal Vaccine: Potential Vaccine Candidate for Safe and Effective Immunization of Chicken Against [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-pasteurella-multocida-outbreak-management). *Front Immunol*. doi:10.3389/fimmu.2021.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34917086/ [25] Reuben RC, Sarkar SL, Ibnat H, et al. Novel multi-strain probiotics reduces *Pasteurella multocida* induced [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-pasteurella-multocida) mortality in broilers. *Sci Rep*. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-00000-0. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33903662/ [26] Wahdan A, Elsebai MF, Elhaig MM, et al. Innovative use of wild Egyptian artichoke extract to control [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera) in vitro. *Vet World*. doi:10.14202/vetworld.2025.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40182829/ [27] Chen J, Sun Y, Hu Y, et al. Evaluation of the immunoprotective effect of gel 01 hydrogel inactivated vaccine against *Pasteurella multocida* infection in chickens. *Microb Pathog*. doi:10.1016/j.micpath.2025.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40934985/ [28] Ghadimipour R, Ghorbanpoor M, Gharibi D, et al. Effects of Selected Adjuvants on Immunogenicity and Protectivity of *Pasteurella multocida* Bacterin Vaccine in Chickens. *Arch Razi Inst*. doi:10.22092/ari.2021.00000. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35096310/ [29] Zhao X, Yang F, Shen H, et al. Immunogenicity and protection of a *Pasteurella multocida* strain with a truncated lipopolysaccharide outer core in ducks. *Vet Res*. doi:10.1186/s13567-022-00000-0. URL: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35236414/ ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Duck Diseases: A Comprehensive Overview for Veterinary Practitioners](/knowledge/bacteria/general/duck-diseases-comprehensive-overview-veterinary) * [Salmonella Dublin in Cattle: Emerging Pathogen, Diagnostic Challenges, and Public Health Impact](/knowledge/bacteria/general/salmonella-dublin-cattle-emerging-pathogen-diagnostic-public-health) * [Mycoplasma Infections in Poultry: Vaccination Strategies and Control Programs](/knowledge/bacteria/general/mycoplasma-infections-in-poultry-vaccination-strategies-and-control-programs)