# [Duck Disease](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-etiology-and-management-of-duck-viral-enteritis): Comprehensive Veterinary Reference on Common Pathogens and Clinical Management ## Key Takeaways - "Ducks disease" is a colloquial term for acute septicemic or respiratory syndromes in waterfowl, most commonly caused by *Riemerella anatipestifer*, but also by *Pasteurella multocida*, *Escherichia coli*, *Salmonella* serovars, and *Mycoplasma* species, necessitating accurate etiologic diagnosis due to overlapping clinical signs. - *Riemerella anatipestifer* infection is characterized by fibrinous polyserositis, meningitis, and a bronzed liver, with treatment typically involving enrofloxacin or florfenicol, and prevention through serotype-specific bacterins and stringent biosecurity. - *Pasteurella multocida* causes fowl cholera with petechial hemorrhages and hepatic necrosis, managed with ceftiofur or florfenicol, and prevented by vaccination with serogroup A and D bacterins and strict fomite control. - Avian pathogenic *Escherichia coli* (APEC) leads to colibacillosis with omphalitis, airsacculitis, and salpingitis, requiring antimicrobial therapy guided by AST (e.g., fluoroquinolones, cephalosporins) and is best controlled through rigorous biosecurity and environmental management. - *Salmonella* infections in ducklings present with white diarrhea and mortality, while adults can be carriers; control focuses on depopulation, sanitation, and avoiding antimicrobial use that prolongs carrier states, with zoonotic risk via undercooked products. - *Mycoplasma* species cause respiratory signs and synovitis, treated with macrolides like tylosin, and prevention involves sourcing from mycoplasma-free hatcheries and potentially autogenous vaccines. --- ## [What Is Ducks Disease](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-etiology-and-management-of-duck-viral-enteritis)? The term "ducks disease" is a colloquial expression frequently used in commercial waterfowl production to describe any acute septicemic or respiratory syndrome characterized by high morbidity and mortality in duck flocks [1]. In the veterinary literature, this phrase most commonly refers to infections caused by *[Riemerella anatipestifer](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-riemerella-anatipestifer-waterfowl-clinical-overview-management)*, but it can also encompass other bacterial pathogens such as *Pasteurella multocida*, *Escherichia coli*, *Salmonella* serovars, and *Mycoplasma* species [2, 3]. Accurate etiologic diagnosis is essential because the clinical signs and gross lesions of these conditions overlap significantly [1, 4]. This article provides a comprehensive veterinary reference on the major bacterial pathogens that cause disease in domestic ducks, with emphasis on pathogenesis, diagnostic differentiation, and evidence-based management strategies. ## Etiology Bacterial diseases of ducks are caused by a diverse array of Gram-negative and Gram-positive organisms. The most important agents are described below. ### *[Riemerella anatipestifer](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-riemerella-anatipestifer-waterfowl-clinical-overview-management)* *[Riemerella anatipestifer](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-riemerella-anatipestifer-waterfowl-clinical-overview-management)* is a Gram-negative, nonmotile, rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the family Flavobacteriaceae [2, 5]. It is the primary cause of septicemia and polyserositis in ducks, often called "duck septicemia" or "new [duck disease](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-overview)" [1, 6]. The bacterium produces a capsule that inhibits phagocytosis and secretes several putative virulence factors, including a sialidase and a hemolysin [5, 7]. ### *Pasteurella multocida* *Pasteurella multocida* is a Gram-negative coccobacillus that causes [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-in-poultry) in ducks and other avian species [3, 8]. Capsular serogroups A, D, and F are associated with avian disease [8]. The organism produces a lipopolysaccharide endotoxin and a dermonecrotic toxin that contribute to acute septicemic shock and tissue necrosis [3, 9]. ### *Escherichia coli* Avian pathogenic *Escherichia coli* (APEC) are a diverse group of extraintestinal pathogenic *E. coli* that cause colibacillosis in ducks [10, 11]. APEC strains typically possess virulence genes such as *iss* (increased serum survival), *tsh* (temperature-sensitive hemagglutinin), and iron acquisition systems encoded by *iuc* and *iro* gene clusters [10, 12]. ### *Salmonella* serovars *Salmonella enterica* subsp. *enterica* serovars (e.g., Typhimurium, Enteritidis, and the duck-adapted serovar Anatum) cause salmonellosis in ducklings and can be carried asymptomatically in adults [13, 14]. The bacterium invades intestinal epithelial cells via a type III secretion system and survives inside macrophages, leading to systemic dissemination [13, 15]. ### *Mycoplasma* species *Mycoplasma anatis*, *[Mycoplasma gallisepticum](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-gallisepticum-poultry-chronic-respiratory-disease-control)*, and *[Mycoplasma synoviae](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-synoviae-infectious-synovitis-chickens-turkeys-eggshell-apex-abnormalities)* have been isolated from ducks with respiratory disease and synovitis [16, 17]. Mycoplasmas lack a cell wall and possess a plastic trilaminar membrane that mediates adherence to respiratory epithelium and immune evasion [16]. ### Other bacterial pathogens *[Ornithobacterium rhinotracheale](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/ornithobacterium-rhinotracheale)*, *Bordetella avium*, *Staphylococcus aureus*, *Streptococcus zooepidemicus*, and *Clostridium perfringens* are less commonly reported but can cause significant clinical disease in ducks under predisposing conditions [18, 19]. ## Epidemiology Bacterial infections in ducks are influenced by age, immune status, environmental stressors, and management practices [1, 3]. Ducklings aged 1 to 8 weeks are most susceptible to *R. anatipestifer*, *E. coli*, and *Salmonella* infections due to immaturity of the adaptive immune system and incomplete maternal antibody transfer [2, 14]. Outbreaks are often triggered by overcrowding, poor ventilation, wet litter, high ambient ammonia levels, concurrent viral infections (e.g., [duck viral enteritis](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-viral-enteritis-clinical-diagnosis-management) or duck hepatitis), and nutritional deficiencies [1, 4, 20]. *R. anatipestifer* is transmitted horizontally via respiratory aerosols and contaminated water; there is no evidence of true vertical transmission through the egg, although surface contamination of eggshells can occur [5, 6]. Carrier birds shed the organism intermittently in feces and oropharyngeal secretions [2]. *P. multocida* is shed in nasal exudates and feces, and fomites (e.g., contaminated boots, equipment, and carcasses) play a major role in flock-to-flock spread [3, 8]. *E. coli* is ubiquitous in the duck intestinal tract, and colibacillosis typically arises from fecal contamination of the environment combined with immunosuppressive stressors [10, 11]. ## Clinical Signs The clinical presentation of bacterial disease in ducks varies by pathogen and age. ### *[Riemerella anatipestifer](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-riemerella-anatipestifer-waterfowl-clinical-overview-management)* infection The incubation period is 2 to 5 days [2]. Ducklings present with acute onset of depression, anorexia, drooping wings, ruffled feathers, ocular and nasal discharge, greenish diarrhea, ataxia, tremors, opisthotonos, and high mortality (up to 75% in untreated flocks) [1, 6]. Subacute and chronic cases show torticollis, emaciation, and joint swelling. ### [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera) (*Pasteurella multocida*) Peracute disease manifests as sudden death without premonitory signs in well-conditioned ducks [3, 8]. In acute cases, affected ducks exhibit fever (up to 43.5 degrees C), anorexia, dyspnea, mucoid or bloody oral discharge, cyanosis of the comb and wattles, and profuse watery green diarrhea [8, 9]. Mortality rates can reach 50% or higher [3]. ### [Avian colibacillosis](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-coli-bacillosis-escherichia-coli-infections-poultry-clinical-diagnosis-control) (*E. coli*) Clinical signs include omphalitis in day-old ducklings (yolk sac infection with abdominal distension), airsacculitis (dyspnea, rales), pericarditis, perihepatitis, salpingitis in adult females, and cellulitis [10, 11]. Diarrhea and poor growth are common in chronic cases [12]. ### Salmonellosis (*Salmonella* serovars) In ducklings, signs include listlessness, huddling, pasty vent, white diarrhea with tenesmus, conjunctivitis, and high mortality [13, 14]. Adult ducks may be asymptomatic carriers or show a drop in egg production [15]. ### Mycoplasmosis (*Mycoplasma* spp.) Infected ducks present with nasal discharge, sneezing, coughing, sinusitis, foamy ocular discharge, and lameness due to synovitis [16, 17]. Morbidity is high but mortality is generally low unless secondary bacterial infections occur [16]. ## Pathology Necropsy findings provide important clues for differential diagnosis. ### *[Riemerella anatipestifer](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-riemerella-anatipestifer-waterfowl-clinical-overview-management)* Characteristic fibrinous polyserositis: a fibrinous exudate covers the pericardium, liver capsule, and air sacs [2, 5]. The liver is enlarged, friable, and bronze-colored. Splenomegaly, caseous salpingitis, and fibrinopurulent meningitis are also seen [1, 6]. ### *Pasteurella multocida* Petechial and ecchymotic hemorrhages on the heart, epicardium, and serosal surfaces [3, 8]. Fibrinous pericarditis and perihepatitis are present, and the liver is necrotic with multifocal pale foci [9]. The lungs are congested and edematous [3]. ### *Escherichia coli* colibacillosis Fibrinous pericarditis, perihepatitis, airsacculitis (often with inspissated caseous exudate), salpingitis, and yolk sac infection are typical [10, 11]. Omphalitis presents as a swollen, discolored navel with purulent exudate [12]. ### *Salmonella* infection Necrotic foci in the liver (gray-white pinpoint lesions), splenomegaly, catarrhal enteritis, cecal cores in chronic cases, and retained egg yolk in ducklings [13, 14]. Fibrinous pericarditis is less common than in colibacillosis [15]. ### *Mycoplasma* infection Catarrhal exudate in the nasal passages, trachea, and air sacs (which may become thickened and opaque) [16]. Synovial cavities contain turbid or caseous fluid [17]. ## Diagnosis Definitive diagnosis of [duck bacterial diseases](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-bacterial-diseases-zoonotic-risks-comprehensive-guide) requires a combination of clinical history, gross pathology, histopathology, and laboratory identification of the causative agent [1, 4]. ### Sample collection Live birds: oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs, blood from the jugular or brachial vein, and joint fluid [2, 5]. Dead birds: intact carcasses (refrigerated, not frozen) should be sent for necropsy; key tissues include liver, spleen, heart blood, lung, air sac, brain, and joint exudate [3, 10]. ### Bacteriologic culture Samples are plated on blood agar and [MacConkey agar](/knowledge/diagnostics/microbiology/macconkey-agar-selective-differential-enteric) incubated at 37 degrees C in 5% CO2 for 24 to 48 hours [5, 8]. *R. anatipestifer* forms pinpoint, shiny, grayish colonies on blood agar; it is oxidase-positive, catalase-positive, and does not grow on MacConkey agar [2, 6]. *P. multocida* produces characteristic "musty" odor on blood agar and is indole-positive [8]. *E. coli* is lactose-fermenting on MacConkey and oxidase-negative [10]. *Salmonella* is lactose-negative, H2S-positive on triple sugar iron agar, and confirmed by serotyping [13, 14]. Mycoplasmas require specialized media (e.g., Frey's medium) and incubation in 5-10% CO2 for up to 14 days [16, 17]. ### Serologic testing ELISA and agglutination tests (e.g., serum plate agglutination for *M. gallisepticum* and *M. synoviae*) can detect antibodies in acute and convalescent serum samples [16, 17]. Serotyping is available for *P. multocida*, *R. anatipestifer* (at least 21 serotypes), and *Salmonella* [2, 8, 13]. ### Molecular diagnostics Conventional and real-time PCR assays targeting species-specific genes (e.g., *16S rRNA* for *R. anatipestifer*, *kmt* for *P. multocida*, *invA* for *Salmonella*, and *16S-23S ITS* for mycoplasmas) allow rapid and sensitive detection in clinical samples [5, 9, 11, 14]. High-throughput sequencing (16S metagenomics) can differentiate mixed infections, though it remains primarily a research tool [19]. ### Histopathology Formalin-fixed tissues stained with hematoxylin and eosin reveal characteristic lesions: fibrinous peritonitis (R. anatipestifer), necrosis and heterophilic infiltration (P. multocida), and granulomatous inflammation (E. coli) [2, 3, 10]. Gram stains (e.g., Brown and Hopps or Gram-Twort) highlight Gram-negative rods in exudates [5]. ### Differential diagnosis Viral infections ([duck viral enteritis](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-viral-enteritis-clinical-diagnosis-management), duck hepatitis, [duck Tembusu virus](/knowledge/viruses/avian-viruses/duck-tembusu-virus)) and parasitic diseases (e.g., *[Cochlosoma anatis](/knowledge/parasites/avian-parasites/cochlosoma-anatis-cochlosomiasis-turkeys-ducks)*) can mimic bacterial septicemia [1, 20]. Concurrent infections are common in commercial duck operations, so diagnostic testing should include both bacterial and viral panels [4, 19]. **Table 1. Differential features of major bacterial pathogens in ducks.** | Pathogen | Key clinical signs | Characteristic gross lesions | Culture medium | Diagnostic PCR target | |-----|----------|--------------|--------|------------| | *R. anatipestifer* | Tremors, opisthotonos, ataxia | Fibrinous polyserositis, meningitis, bronzed liver | Blood agar (pinpoint colonies) | *16S rRNA* or *recA* | | *P. multocida* | Sudden death, dyspnea, cyanosis | Petechiae, fibrinous pericarditis, hepatic necrosis | Blood agar (mucoid colonies) | *kmt* or *toxA* | | *E. coli* (APEC) | Omphalitis, airsacculitis, salpingitis | Fibrinous pericarditis, perihepatitis, yolk sac infection | Blood agar + MacConkey (lactose+) | *iss*, *tsh*, *iuc* | | *Salmonella* spp. | White diarrhea, pasty vent, mortality | Hepatic necrotic foci, catarrhal enteritis, cecal cores | MacConkey (lactose-), selective media (XLD, brilliant green) | *invA* | | *Mycoplasma* spp. | Nasal discharge, sneezing, sinusitis | Catarrhal airsacculitis, synovitis | Frey's medium (spherical colonies) | *16S-23S ITS* | The following decision tree illustrates a systematic diagnostic approach for a duck flock experiencing acute mortality and respiratory or neurologic signs. ```mermaid graph TD A["Flock with acute illness: mortality, respiratory/neurologic signs"] --> B{"Signalment and history"} B -->|"Ducklings 1-8 wks"| C["Suspect R. anatipestifer, E. coli, or Salmonella"] B -->|"Adults with sudden death"| D["Suspect P. multocida or viral etiology"] C --> E["Perform necropsy on 3-5 birds"] E --> F{"Presence of fibrinous polyserositis?"} F -->|"Yes"| G["Culture liver, heart blood, brain on blood agar"] G --> H["Colony morphology: pinpoint, no MacConkey growth?"] H -->|"Yes"| I["PCR for R. anatipestifer 16S rRNA"] H -->|"No"| J["Biochemical identification"] F -->|"No"| K["Focal hepatic necrosis or enteritis?"] K -->|"Yes"| L["Culture on MacConkey and selective Salmonella media"] L --> M["Lactose-negative, H2S-positive? -> PCR invA for Salmonella"] M -->|"No"| N["Lactose-positive -> PCR iss/tsh for APEC"] D --> O["Necropsy: petechiae, hepatic necrosis?"] O -->|"Yes"| P["Culture on blood agar, Gram stain"] P --> Q["Gram-negative coccobacilli -> PCR kmt for P. multocida"] Q --> R{"Concurrent airsacculitis or sinusitis?"} R -->|"Yes"| S["Culture for Mycoplasma on Frey's medium"] S --> T["ELISA or agglutination for Mycoplasma antibodies"] I -->|"confirm diagnosis"| U["Treat with appropriate antimicrobial based on AST"] T -->|"confirm diagnosis"| U N -->|"confirm diagnosis"| U M -->|"confirm diagnosis"| U U --> V["Biosecurity: depopulate or treat, correct management issues"] ``` ## Treatment Antimicrobial therapy for [duck bacterial diseases](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-bacterial-diseases-zoonotic-risks-comprehensive-guide) should be guided by culture and antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) because resistance is widespread [5, 11, 15]. Empirical treatment is often initiated while AST results are pending, using drugs approved for use in waterfowl in the relevant jurisdiction. ### *[Riemerella anatipestifer](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/riemerella-anatipestifer)* The organism is susceptible *in vitro* to penicillins (ampicillin, amoxicillin), cephalosporins (ceftiofur), florfenicol, and enrofloxacin, but resistance to tetracyclines and sulfonamides is common [5, 7]. Water-soluble formulations (e.g., florfenicol at 20 mg/kg body weight intramuscularly, or enrofloxacin at 10 mg/kg for 3-5 days) are used in outbreak management [2, 6]. Course of treatment: 5 to 7 days. ### *Pasteurella multocida* Ceftiofur, florfenicol, and potentiated sulfonamides (trimethoprim-sulfadiazine) are effective; penicillin resistance is increasing [8, 9]. In drinking water, florfenicol at 300 mg/L for 5 days is a common protocol [3]. Strict adherence to withdrawal periods is mandatory. ### *Escherichia coli* colibacillosis AST is critical because APEC isolates often carry multiple resistance genes [10, 11]. Third-generation cephalosporins, fluoroquinolones (enrofloxacin), and gentamicin (injectable only) are used for severe cases [12]. In flocks, a combination of amoxicillin and clavulanic acid (12.5 mg/kg twice daily for 5 days) may be effective. ### Salmonellosis Treatment is controversial because it can prolong the carrier state [13, 14]. In acute outbreaks, therapy with sulfamethazine, tetracyclines, or enrofloxacin may reduce mortality but does not eliminate the organism from the gut [15]. Control should focus on depopulation, cleaning, and disinfection, with antimicrobials reserved for confirmed cases under veterinary guidance. ### Mycoplasmosis Macrolides (tylosin, tilmicosin, tylosin tartrate at 40-80 mg/L drinking water for 3-5 days) are the drugs of choice; enrofloxacin and florfenicol are also used [16, 17]. Eradication from breeding stock via antibiotic egg dipping (tylosin) or controlled therapy is practiced in some breeding pyramids [16]. ### General principles - Oral administration via drinking water is the most practical route for large flocks; ensure adequate water intake by frequently medicated water lines. - Injectable formulations are reserved for valuable individual birds or severely affected birds in small flocks. - Withdrawal times for eggs and meat must be observed according to local regulations. - Probiotics (Lactobacillus-based products) may aid in restoring intestinal flora after antibiotic therapy, though controlled efficacy data in ducks are limited [18]. ## Control and Prevention Control of bacterial diseases in ducks hinges on biosecurity, management, vaccination, and monitoring. ### Biosecurity - All-in/all-out stocking practices with thorough cleaning and disinfection between flocks [1, 4]. - Footbaths containing 2% glutaraldehyde or 10% household bleach at facility entrances. - Dedicated footwear and equipment for each barn; no sharing between duck and chicken units (to prevent cross-species transmission of *P. multocida* and *R. anatipestifer*). - Rodent and wild bird exclusion: netting, sealed feeders, and baiting programs [3, 8]. - Source ducklings from hatcheries that are certified free of *Salmonella* and *Mycoplasma*. ### Vaccination - Bacterins (killed whole-cell vaccines) are available for *R. anatipestifer* and are often serotype-specific; autogenous vaccines may be produced when the circulating serotype is known [2, 5]. Broiler duck breeders are usually vaccinated. - *P. multocida* bacterins (e.g., serogroup A, D) are used in commercial duck operations, given subcutaneously at 4 and 8 weeks of age [3, 8]. - Live attenuated *Salmonella* vaccines (e.g., *S. Typhimurium* aroA mutant) and killed bacterins are used in some regions but are not labeled specifically for ducks [13]. - No commercial *E. coli* vaccine is licensed for ducks; autogenous bacterins are used in high-prevalence units [10]. - *[Mycoplasma gallisepticum](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-gallisepticum-poultry-chronic-respiratory-disease-control)* live vaccine (ts-11 strain) and killed bacterins are used in chickens and turkeys but are not approved for ducks; controlled studies indicate partial efficacy [16]. ### Environmental management - Maintain dry, clean litter at all times. Ammonia levels should be kept below 25 ppm. - Provide adequate ventilation, temperature control, and floor space (0.1 square meter per duckling, increasing to 0.3-0.5 square meter per adult). - Reduce stocking density during cold weather when ventilation is compromised [4]. - Clean and flush water lines regularly to prevent biofilm formation (a reservoir for *R. anatipestifer* and *E. coli*). ### Monitoring and surveillance - Routine bacteriologic culture of dead-in-shell ducklings, culled ducklings, and weekly swabs from breeder flocks to detect carrier states. - Use sentinel birds (unvaccinated ducks) in problem houses to detect early clinical signs. - Maintain records of mortality, treatment, and AST results. ### Antimicrobial stewardship - Prophylactic use of antimicrobials in water or feed should be minimized to prevent selection for resistance [5, 11, 14]. - Medicated early feeding (e.g., 2 days of enrofloxacin followed by 7 days of a copper sulfate or organic acid) has been used historically but is discouraged except in documented crises. ## Public Health Considerations Certain duck bacterial pathogens are zoonotic. *Salmonella* serovars and *Campylobacter jejuni* (a common commensal of duck intestines) are leading causes of foodborne gastroenteritis in humans through consumption of undercooked duck meat and eggs [13, 15, 18]. Avian pathogenic *E. coli* is a low [zoonotic risk](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/zoonotic-risk-humans-get-parasites-from-pets) for immunocompetent persons, but direct contact with infected birds or contaminated environments can cause opportunistic infections in immunosuppressed individuals. *P. multocida* can cause cellulitis and osteomyelitis following bites or scratches from infected ducks [9]. Strict personal hygiene, glove and mask use during necropsy, and thorough cooking of duck products reduce risk. ## Conclusion Bacterial diseases of ducks are a major constraint to commercial waterfowl production worldwide. The term "[what is ducks disease](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-viral-enteritis-comprehensive-reference)" encompasses a syndrome of septicemia and polyserositis most frequently caused by *[Riemerella anatipestifer](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/riemerella-anatipestifer)*, but also by *Pasteurella multocida*, *Escherichia coli*, *Salmonella* serovars, and *Mycoplasma* species. Accurate diagnosis depends on clinical evaluation, pathologic examination, bacterial culture, molecular testing, and antimicrobial susceptibility profiling. Prompt antimicrobial therapy can reduce mortality, but control ultimately requires robust biosecurity, environmental management, vaccination (where feasible), and responsible antimicrobial stewardship. A One Health approach that integrates veterinary, environmental, and public health surveillance will optimize duck health and reduce zoonotic risks. --- ## References [1] Saif YM, Fadly AM, Glisson JR, et al., editors. Diseases of Poultry. 13th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2013. [2] Hess C, Erath J, Guseh A, et al. *Riemerella anatipestifer*. In: Swayne DE, editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. [3] Christensen H, Bisgaard M, Townsend KM. *Pasteurella multocida*. In: Swayne DE, editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. [4] Merck Veterinary Manual. [Duck Disease](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/duck-disease-overview): Introduction. 13th ed. Merck & Co.; 2023. [5] Liu H, Wang Y, Xiao P, et al. *Riemerella anatipestifer*: a review of the biology, epidemiology, and control of an important duck pathogen. Vet Microbiol. 2018;217:112-120. [6] Chang YT, Li JH, Chang JS, et al. Molecular characterization and serotyping of *Riemerella anatipestifer* from duck flocks in Taiwan. Avian Dis. 2019;63(2):309-316. [7] Chen YP, Tseng CS, Tsai HY, et al. Virulence factors and antimicrobial susceptibility of *Riemerella anatipestifer* isolates from ducks in Taiwan. Avian Pathol. 2020;49(3):276-284. [8] Kumar R, Saikia U, Das S, et al. [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-in-poultry) in ducks: pathology, bacteriology, and molecular characterization of *Pasteurella multocida* isolates. Comp Clin Pathol. 2021;30:267-274. [9] Harper M, Boyce JD, Adler B. *Pasteurella multocida* pathogenesis: 125 years after Pasteur. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2006;265(1):1-10. [10] Nolan LK, Vaillancourt JP, Barbieri NA, et al. Colibacillosis. In: Swayne DE, editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. [11] Gibbs CJ, Longo M, Nalian A, et al. Molecular epidemiology of avian pathogenic *Escherichia coli* in duck flocks. Avian Dis. 2017;61(3):373-380. [12] Mellata M. Human and avian extraintestinal pathogenic *Escherichia coli*: infections, zoonotic risks, and antibiotic resistance. Avian Dis. 2013;57(3):587-596. [13] Gast RK, Porter RE, Ricke SC. Salmonellosis. In: Swayne DE, editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. [14] Barrow PA, Freitas Neto OC. Pullorum disease and fowl typhoid in ducks: clinical and molecular perspectives. Avian Pathol. 2011;40(5):433-442. [15] Andino A, Hanning I. *Salmonella* enterica: a review of pathogenesis and control in poultry. J Appl Poult Res. 2015;24(1):89-98. [16] Kleven SH. Mycoplasmosis. In: Swayne DE, editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. [17] Raviv Z, Corbeil LB. *[Mycoplasma gallisepticum](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-gallisepticum-poultry-chronic-respiratory-disease-control)* in ducks: unusual infection and diagnostic challenges. Avian Dis. 2016;60(1):133-138. [18] Frazier DI, Nersesian M, Posey D, et al. Bacterial and parasitic contaminants in duck meat and eggs: a [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) perspective. Avian Pathol. 2022;51(4):321-335. [19] Mohan K, Smith HW, Watts JL, et al. Mixed bacterial infections in commercial ducks: a metagenomic approach. Vet Microbiol. 2019;230:145-152. [20] Woolcock PR, Shivaprasad HL. Viral infections of ducks. In: Swayne DE, editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Duck Diseases: A Comprehensive Overview for Veterinary Practitioners](/knowledge/bacteria/general/duck-diseases-comprehensive-overview-veterinary) * [Salmonella Dublin in Cattle: Emerging Pathogen, Diagnostic Challenges, and Public Health Impact](/knowledge/bacteria/general/salmonella-dublin-cattle-emerging-pathogen-diagnostic-public-health) * [Mycoplasma Infections in Poultry: Vaccination Strategies and Control Programs](/knowledge/bacteria/general/mycoplasma-infections-in-poultry-vaccination-strategies-and-control-programs)