# [Bacterial Pathogens in Poultry Meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-pathogens-in-poultry-meat-etiology-toxin-production-and-food-safety-implications): Salmonella, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and Control Strategies

## Key Takeaways

- *Salmonella*, *Escherichia coli* (specifically avian pathogenic *E. coli* - APEC), and *Campylobacter* spp. are the primary bacterial pathogens of concern in poultry meat, posing significant risks to both avian health and human food safety.
- *Campylobacter jejuni* is the most prevalent pathogen in raw poultry meat, frequently exceeding 50% contamination rates, while *Salmonella* prevalence typically ranges from 5-30%, with serovars like Enteritidis and Typhimurium being epidemiologically significant.
- Pathogenesis involves distinct mechanisms: *Salmonella* utilizes type III secretion systems for invasion and intracellular survival, APEC employs adhesins and toxins for systemic infection, and *Campylobacter* relies on motility and cytolethal distending toxin (CDT) for intestinal colonization.
- Diagnostic approaches include conventional bacteriological culture on selective media (e.g., XLD for *Salmonella*, mCCDA for *Campylobacter*), rapid molecular methods like PCR and qPCR, and serological tests (ELISA, agglutination) for flock surveillance.
- Control strategies are multi-faceted, integrating stringent biosecurity measures, targeted vaccination programs (live attenuated and inactivated *Salmonella* vaccines), and critical processing interventions such as chlorination and chemical washes to reduce carcass contamination.
- Proper cooking to an internal temperature of 74°C (165°F) is essential to eliminate vegetative bacterial cells of these pathogens, though heat-stable toxins can persist.

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## Introduction

Poultry meat is a globally important source of animal protein, yet it is a frequent vehicle for bacterial pathogens that cause foodborne illness and clinical disease in avian hosts. The three most significant bacterial genera associated with poultry meat are *Salmonella* spp., *Escherichia coli*, and *Campylobacter* spp. These organisms are responsible for a substantial proportion of bacterial foodborne disease worldwide and represent major challenges for veterinary public health, flock health management, and regulatory oversight. This article provides an exhaustive, publication-grade review of the etiology, epidemiology, clinical signs, pathology, diagnostics, treatment, and control strategies for these pathogens in poultry meat production.

## Etiology and Taxonomy

### Salmonella

*Salmonella* is a genus of Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacteria within the family Enterobacteriaceae. The genus comprises two species: *Salmonella enterica* and *Salmonella bongori*. *Salmonella enterica* is further divided into six subspecies, with subspecies *enterica* (subspecies I) being responsible for the vast majority of infections in poultry and humans. Within subspecies *enterica*, over 2,500 serovars have been identified based on the Kauffmann-White scheme, which classifies strains according to somatic (O) and flagellar (H) antigens. In poultry, the most clinically and epidemiologically relevant serovars include *Salmonella* Enteritidis, *Salmonella* Typhimurium, *Salmonella* Infantis, *Salmonella* Hadar, and *Salmonella* Heidelberg. Host-adapted serovars such as *Salmonella* Gallinarum and *Salmonella* Pullorum cause systemic disease in poultry but are rarely associated with human foodborne illness.

### Escherichia coli

*Escherichia coli* is a Gram-negative, facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped bacterium also belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae family. Most *E. coli* strains are commensal inhabitants of the intestinal tract of poultry and other animals. However, certain pathotypes possess virulence factors that enable them to cause disease. In poultry, the primary pathotype is avian pathogenic *E. coli* (APEC), which causes colibacillosis, a systemic infection characterized by airsacculitis, pericarditis, perihepatitis, and septicemia. APEC strains typically carry virulence-associated genes encoding adhesins (e.g., type 1 fimbriae, P fimbriae), iron acquisition systems (e.g., aerobactin, salmochelin), toxins (e.g., hemolysin, cytotoxic necrotizing factor), and protectins (e.g., lipopolysaccharide, capsule). Some APEC serogroups, including O1, O2, and O78, are frequently isolated from diseased birds.

### Campylobacter

*Campylobacter* is a genus of Gram-negative, microaerophilic, spiral-shaped bacteria within the family Campylobacteraceae. The two species most commonly associated with poultry meat are *Campylobacter jejuni* and *Campylobacter coli*. *Campylobacter jejuni* accounts for approximately 80-90% of human campylobacteriosis cases, with poultry meat being the primary source of infection. These bacteria are thermophilic, growing optimally at 42 degrees Celsius, which corresponds to the body temperature of avian hosts. *Campylobacter* species are highly motile due to the presence of polar flagella, which are also key virulence factors involved in adhesion and invasion of intestinal epithelial cells.

## Epidemiology

### Prevalence in Poultry Meat

The prevalence of *Salmonella*, *E. coli*, and *Campylobacter* in poultry meat varies widely by geographic region, production system, and sampling point along the farm-to-fork continuum. In many countries, *Campylobacter* is the most frequently isolated pathogen from raw chicken meat, with contamination rates often exceeding 50% of retail samples. *Salmonella* prevalence is generally lower, typically ranging from 5% to 30% depending on the region and serovar distribution. *E. coli* is nearly ubiquitous in poultry meat as an indicator of fecal contamination, but the prevalence of pathogenic APEC strains in meat products is less well characterized.

### Transmission Dynamics

Transmission of these pathogens occurs through multiple routes. Vertical transmission is well documented for *Salmonella* Enteritidis, which can colonize the reproductive tract of laying hens and contaminate eggs internally. Horizontal transmission via the fecal-oral route is the predominant mechanism for all three pathogens in broiler flocks. Contaminated feed, water, litter, equipment, and personnel can introduce and spread these organisms within a flock. During processing, cross-contamination of carcasses occurs during scalding, defeathering, evisceration, and chilling. The presence of these pathogens on raw poultry meat is a major [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) concern, and the question "does all chicken have salmonella" reflects consumer awareness; while not all chicken carcasses harbor *Salmonella*, a substantial proportion do, and the organism can be present even in visually unspoiled meat.

### [Chicken Salmonella UK](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/salmonella-poultry-uk-epidemiology)

In the United Kingdom, *Salmonella* prevalence in poultry has declined significantly following the implementation of national control programs, particularly for *Salmonella* Enteritidis and *Salmonella* Typhimurium in breeding flocks and laying hens. However, *Salmonella* Infantis and other serovars remain problematic in broiler production. The UK poultry industry operates under strict surveillance and testing protocols aligned with European Union regulations.

### [Chicken Bacteria Disease](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-bacterial-infections-poultry-comprehensive-review)

The term "[chicken bacteria disease](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-diseases-of-chickens-salmonella-escherichia-coli-and-other-pathogens)" encompasses a range of clinical conditions caused by these pathogens in poultry. Salmonellosis in chicks and poults can present as acute septicemia with high mortality. Colibacillosis is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in broilers, layers, and breeders, manifesting as respiratory disease, pericarditis, and peritonitis. Campylobacteriosis in poultry is typically subclinical, with birds serving as asymptomatic carriers that excrete high numbers of *Campylobacter* in their feces.

## Clinical Signs and Pathology

### Salmonellosis

In young birds, acute salmonellosis caused by *Salmonella* Pullorum or *Salmonella* Gallinarum results in depression, anorexia, diarrhea, and high mortality. Postmortem examination reveals caseous cecal cores, enlarged liver and spleen with necrotic foci, and unabsorbed yolk sacs. Infection with paratyphoid *Salmonella* serovars (e.g., *Salmonella* Typhimurium) in chicks causes similar but often less severe lesions. In adult birds, paratyphoid infections are usually asymptomatic, although transient diarrhea and decreased egg production may occur.

### Colibacillosis

Colibacillosis presents in several forms. The respiratory form, often secondary to viral or mycoplasmal infection, is characterized by airsacculitis, pneumonia, and pericarditis. The septicemic form causes sudden death, fibrinous polyserositis, and perihepatitis. The enteric form results in diarrhea and dehydration. Yolk sac infection in neonates leads to omphalitis and high mortality. Chronic lesions include salpingitis, peritonitis, and synovitis.

### Campylobacteriosis

*Campylobacter* infection in poultry is predominantly subclinical. No specific gross lesions are consistently associated with *Campylobacter* colonization. However, experimental infections have demonstrated mild enteritis, fluid accumulation in the ceca, and occasional focal hepatic necrosis. The absence of clinical signs in carrier birds facilitates the silent spread of *Campylobacter* within flocks and its introduction into processing plants.

## Pathogenesis and Virulence Mechanisms

### Salmonella

*Salmonella* pathogenesis involves adhesion to intestinal epithelial cells via fimbriae, invasion through the intestinal mucosa using a type III secretion system (T3SS) encoded by pathogenicity island 1 (SPI-1), and survival within macrophages mediated by a second T3SS encoded by pathogenicity island 2 (SPI-2). Systemic spread occurs via the lymphatic and circulatory systems, leading to colonization of the liver, spleen, and reproductive tract. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) triggers a strong inflammatory response, contributing to tissue damage and clinical signs.

### Escherichia coli

APEC strains adhere to respiratory and intestinal epithelium using fimbrial adhesins. Invasion of the respiratory tract is facilitated by prior damage from viral or mycoplasmal infections. Once inside the host, APEC resists phagocytosis and complement-mediated killing through capsule and LPS structures. Iron acquisition systems allow the bacterium to proliferate in the iron-limited environment of the host. Toxins such as hemolysin and cytotoxic necrotizing factor 1 contribute to tissue necrosis and inflammation.

### Campylobacter

*Campylobacter* motility is essential for colonization, as flagella enable the bacterium to penetrate the mucus layer and adhere to intestinal epithelial cells. The organism produces cytolethal distending toxin (CDT), which causes host cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. *Campylobacter* also invades epithelial cells via a microtubule-dependent mechanism and can translocate across the intestinal barrier. The bacterium's ability to survive within macrophages and evade the host immune response contributes to persistent colonization.

## Diagnostics

### Bacteriological Culture

Conventional culture methods remain the gold standard for isolation and identification of these pathogens. For *Salmonella*, pre-enrichment in buffered peptone water is followed by selective enrichment in Rappaport-Vassiliadis broth or tetrathionate broth, and plating on selective agar such as xylose lysine deoxycholate (XLD) agar or brilliant green agar. For *Campylobacter*, microaerophilic incubation at 42 degrees Celsius on selective agar containing antibiotics (e.g., modified charcoal cefoperazone deoxycholate agar, mCCDA) is standard. *E. coli* is cultured on [MacConkey agar](/knowledge/diagnostics/microbiology/macconkey-agar-selective-differential-enteric) or eosin methylene blue (EMB) agar, and APEC strains are identified by serotyping and virulence gene detection.

### Molecular Diagnostics

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and real-time PCR assays are widely used for rapid detection and serovar identification. Multiplex PCR panels targeting species-specific genes (e.g., *invA* for *Salmonella*, *16S rRNA* for *Campylobacter*, *uidA* for *E. coli*) and virulence genes (e.g., *stx* for Shiga toxin-producing *E. coli*, *cdt* for *Campylobacter*) are available. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) is increasingly employed for epidemiological surveillance, source tracking, and antimicrobial resistance gene profiling.

### Serological Testing

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) and agglutination tests are used for flock-level surveillance of *Salmonella* and *E. coli* infections. Serological monitoring is particularly important for detecting *Salmonella* Enteritidis and *Salmonella* Typhimurium in breeding and laying flocks as part of national control programs.

## Treatment

### Antimicrobial Therapy

Treatment of [bacterial infections in poultry](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-infections-in-poultry) is complicated by the emergence of antimicrobial resistance. For colibacillosis, antibiotics such as amoxicillin, florfenicol, enrofloxacin, and tetracyclines have been used, but resistance is widespread. For salmonellosis, treatment is generally discouraged in food-producing animals to avoid selection of resistant strains, and control relies on biosecurity and vaccination. *Campylobacter* infections in poultry are not typically treated, as the goal is to reduce carriage rather than treat clinical disease. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing is essential to guide therapy when treatment is necessary.

### Alternative Strategies

Probiotics, prebiotics, organic acids, bacteriophages, and bacteriocins are being investigated as alternatives to antibiotics for reducing pathogen colonization in poultry. Competitive exclusion products, which consist of defined or undefined mixtures of commensal bacteria, are administered to chicks to prevent *Salmonella* colonization. These products are most effective when applied as early as possible after hatch.

## Control Strategies

### Biosecurity

Strict biosecurity measures are the cornerstone of pathogen control in poultry production. These include all-in/all-out management, cleaning and disinfection of houses between flocks, control of rodents and insects, chlorination of drinking water, and restriction of visitor access. Boot dips, hand sanitizers, and dedicated clothing for each house reduce the risk of mechanical transmission.

### Vaccination

Vaccines are available for *Salmonella* and *E. coli* in poultry. Live attenuated *Salmonella* vaccines (e.g., *Salmonella* Typhimurium and *Salmonella* Enteritidis strains) are administered orally or by spray to induce mucosal and systemic immunity. Inactivated (killed) vaccines are used in breeders and layers to provide passive immunity to progeny via maternal antibodies. Autogenous vaccines prepared from farm-specific APEC strains are used to control colibacillosis in problem flocks.

### Processing Interventions

During slaughter and processing, multiple interventions are applied to reduce bacterial contamination of carcasses. These include:

- **Scalding**: Hot water (50-60 degrees Celsius) reduces surface bacterial load.
- **Defeathering**: Rubber fingers can spread bacteria; equipment sanitation is critical.
- **Evisceration**: Careful technique minimizes rupture of the gastrointestinal tract.
- **Chilling**: Immersion chilling in chlorinated water or air chilling reduces bacterial counts.
- **Chemical interventions**: Peroxyacetic acid, chlorine dioxide, and cetylpyridinium chloride are applied as carcass washes or sprays.

### [Cooking Chicken Kill Bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention)

Proper cooking is the final and most critical step in ensuring the safety of poultry meat. The question "[cooking chicken kill bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/cooking-chicken-kill-bacteria-food-safety)" has a definitive answer: heating chicken to an internal temperature of 74 degrees Celsius (165 degrees Fahrenheit) kills vegetative cells of *Salmonella*, *E. coli*, and *Campylobacter*. However, heat-stable toxins produced by some bacteria (e.g., enterotoxins of *Staphylococcus aureus* and *Bacillus cereus*) may survive cooking. The concept of "[chicken bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-parasitic-contaminants-poultry-meat-eggs) toxins" is relevant because toxin-mediated illness can occur even when the bacteria themselves are killed.

### Regulatory Oversight

The United States Department of Agriculture [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) and Inspection Service (FSIS) has established performance standards for *Salmonella* and *Campylobacter* in poultry products. The [FSIS poultry salmonella](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/poultry-salmonella-food-safety-fsis) initiative sets maximum allowable prevalence levels for *Salmonella* in broiler carcasses, and establishments that exceed these levels are subject to regulatory action. Similar standards exist in the European Union, where process hygiene criteria for *Salmonella* and *Campylobacter* are defined in Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005.

## [Chicken Parasites in Meat](/knowledge/parasites/avian-parasites/parasites-poultry-chicken-eggs-meat)

While this article focuses on bacterial pathogens, it is important to note that poultry meat can also harbor parasites. The term "[chicken parasites in meat](/knowledge/parasites/avian-parasites/parasites-poultry-meat-eggs)" refers primarily to protozoan parasites such as *[Toxoplasma gondii](/knowledge/parasites/protozoa/toxoplasma-gondii-lifecycle-neurological-infection)* and *Sarcocystis* spp., which can be present in muscle tissue. Parasitic contamination is less common than bacterial contamination but represents a distinct [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) risk. Control of parasites relies on biosecurity, proper cooking, and freezing.

## [Chicken Neck Bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/chicken-neck-bacteria-microbiological-profile)

The term "[chicken neck bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/chicken-neck-bacteria-microbiological-profile)" refers to the high bacterial load often present on chicken neck skin, which is a common component of processed poultry products. Neck skin samples are frequently used in regulatory microbiological testing because they are representative of overall carcass contamination. High levels of *Salmonella*, *Campylobacter*, and *E. coli* can be recovered from neck skin, underscoring the importance of thorough cooking.

## Chicken Breast Bacteria

"Chicken breast bacteria" is a consumer-facing term that reflects concern about bacterial contamination of this popular cut. While the breast muscle itself is sterile in a live, healthy bird, surface contamination occurs during processing. *Campylobacter* and *Salmonella* are the pathogens most commonly isolated from chicken breast meat at retail.

## [Chicken Diseases Caused by Bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/chicken-bacterial-diseases-comprehensive)

The phrase "[chicken diseases caused by bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/chicken-bacterial-diseases-comprehensive)" encompasses many conditions beyond those caused by *Salmonella*, *E. coli*, and *Campylobacter*. Other important bacterial diseases of poultry include [necrotic enteritis](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/necrotic-enteritis-poultry) (*Clostridium perfringens*), [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-in-poultry) (*Pasteurella multocida*), [infectious coryza](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-infectious-coryza) (*Avibacterium paragallinarum*), mycoplasmosis (*[Mycoplasma gallisepticum](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-gallisepticum-poultry-chronic-respiratory-disease-control)*, *[Mycoplasma synoviae](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-synoviae-infectious-synovitis-chickens-turkeys-eggshell-apex-abnormalities)*), and erysipelas (*[Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/erysipelothrix-rhusiopathiae-swine-erysipelas-arthritis-diamonds)*). These diseases are covered in detail in other articles on this portal, including [Bacterial Pathogens in Poultry: Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Other Common Agents](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-pathogens-poultry-salmonella-escherichia-coli) and [Avian Colibacillosis: Escherichia coli Infections in Poultry, Clinical Manifestations, Diagnosis, and Control](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-coli-bacillosis-escherichia-coli-infections-poultry-clinical-diagnosis-control).

## Pathogens Most Common in Raw Poultry Meat

The question "pathogens is most common in raw poultry meat" is answered by epidemiological data: *Campylobacter jejuni* is the most frequently isolated pathogen, followed by *Salmonella* spp. and *Clostridium perfringens*. *Escherichia coli* is nearly universal as an indicator of fecal contamination, but pathogenic strains such as APEC and Shiga toxin-producing *E. coli* (STEC) are less common. *[Listeria monocytogenes](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/listeria-monocytogenes-circling-disease-ruminants-silage)* and *Staphylococcus aureus* are also found on raw poultry meat but at lower prevalence.

## Chicken E. coli or Salmonella

The comparative question "chicken e coli or salmonella" is frequently asked by consumers and [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) professionals. Both organisms are Gram-negative enteric bacteria, but they differ in epidemiology, pathogenesis, and clinical significance. *Salmonella* is more commonly associated with systemic infection in poultry and humans, while *E. coli* is primarily an indicator of fecal contamination and a cause of colibacillosis in birds. On raw chicken, both organisms can be present, and their control requires similar hygiene measures.

## E. coli on Raw Chicken

The presence of "[e coli on raw chicken](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/e-coli-salmonella-raw-chicken-comparative)" is a routine finding and is used as an indicator of fecal contamination during processing. Regulatory standards for *E. coli* on poultry carcasses are based on quantitative counts rather than presence or absence. High *E. coli* levels suggest inadequate process control and an increased risk of pathogen contamination.

## [Salmonella Chicken Only](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-salmonellosis-chicken-salmonella-comprehensive-guide)

The phrase "[salmonella chicken only](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-salmonellosis-chicken-salmonella-comprehensive-guide)" reflects a common misconception that *Salmonella* is exclusively associated with poultry. While poultry is a major reservoir for *Salmonella* Enteritidis and *Salmonella* Typhimurium, the bacterium is also found in eggs, pork, beef, dairy products, fruits, and vegetables. However, the association between *Salmonella* and poultry is particularly strong due to the high prevalence of asymptomatic carriage in chickens.

## Conclusion

*Salmonella*, *Escherichia coli*, and *Campylobacter* remain the most significant [bacterial pathogens in poultry meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-pathogens-in-poultry-meat-etiology-toxin-production-and-food-safety-implications) production. Their control requires a comprehensive, farm-to-fork approach encompassing biosecurity, vaccination, antimicrobial stewardship, processing interventions, and consumer education. Ongoing surveillance, molecular epidemiology, and research into alternative control strategies are essential to reduce the burden of these pathogens on animal health and [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention).

```mermaid
flowchart TD
    A["Live Poultry Flock"] --> B["Pre-Harvest Interventions"]
    B --> B1["Biosecurity"]
    B --> B2["Vaccination"]
    B --> B3["Competitive Exclusion"]
    B --> B4["Feed and Water Additives"]
    B --> C["Transport to Processing Plant"]
    C --> D["Processing Interventions"]
    D --> D1["Scalding"]
    D --> D2["Defeathering"]
    D --> D3["Evisceration"]
    D --> D4["Chilling"]
    D --> D5["Chemical Washes"]
    D --> E["Post-Processing Testing"]
    E --> E1["Salmonella Culture/PCR"]
    E --> E2["Campylobacter Culture/PCR"]
    E --> E3["E. coli Enumeration"]
    E --> F["Retail Distribution"]
    F --> G["Consumer Handling and Cooking"]
    G --> G1["Cook to 74°C Internal Temperature"]
    G --> G2["Prevent Cross-Contamination"]
    G --> H["Safe Consumption"]
```

## References

1. Gast, R. K., and Porter, R. E. *Salmonella* infections. In: Swayne, D. E., editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. p. 719-753.
2. Nolan, L. K., Barnes, H. J., Vaillancourt, J. P., Abdul-Aziz, T., and Logue, C. M. Colibacillosis. In: Swayne, D. E., editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. p. 770-830.
3. Shane, S. M. *Campylobacter* infections. In: Swayne, D. E., editor. Diseases of Poultry. 14th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2020. p. 754-769.
4. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food Safety and Inspection Service. Salmonella and Campylobacter Performance Standards for Poultry Products. FSIS Directive 10240.2. Washington, DC: USDA FSIS.
5. European Commission. Commission Regulation (EC) No 2073/2005 on microbiological criteria for foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Union. 2005;L 338:1-26.
6. World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals. 12th ed. Paris: WOAH; 2023.
7. Quinn, P. J., Markey, B. K., Leonard, F. C., FitzPatrick, E. S., Fanning, S., and Hartigan, P. J. Veterinary Microbiology and Microbial Disease. 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2011.
8. Mead, G. C. Microbiological quality of poultry meat: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal. 2004;60(4):401-418.
9. Humphrey, T. J. Public health aspects of *Salmonella* infection in poultry. In: Pattison, M., McMullin, P., Bradbury, J., and Alexander, D., editors. [Poultry Diseases](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/common-poultry-diseases-veterinary-overview-bacterial-viral). 6th ed. Saunders Elsevier; 2008. p. 476-489.
10. Hermans, D., Pasmans, F., Messens, W., Martel, A., Van Immerseel, F., Rasschaert, G., Heyndrickx, M., Van Deun, K., and Haesebrouck, F. Poultry as a host for the zoonotic pathogen *Campylobacter jejuni*. Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases. 2012;12(2):89-98.

***

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