# [Bacterial Contamination of Chicken Meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-chicken-meat-salmonella-campylobacter-food-safety): [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) and Public Health
## Key Takeaways
- *Campylobacter jejuni* and *C. coli* are the leading causes of foodborne illness from chicken, contaminating carcasses via fecal leakage during evisceration; their prevalence is higher in backyard slaughter operations, and chilling with ice is crucial for inhibition.
- Non-typhoidal *Salmonella* serovars are significant zoonotic pathogens, with high prevalence rates reported in various markets globally; risk factors include open slaughterhouse systems and inadequate equipment segregation.
- Pathogenic *Escherichia coli*, including multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing strains, are frequently isolated from chicken meat, posing a substantial public health threat due to widespread antimicrobial resistance.
- Chicken meat's intrinsic properties (high water activity, neutral pH, abundant nutrients) create a permissive environment for bacterial growth, with storage temperature significantly influencing microbial diversity and proliferation, and post-slaughter contamination occurring during processing steps like scalding and evisceration.
- Proper cooking to an internal temperature of 74°C (165°F) is essential for inactivating vegetative bacterial cells, but preventing cross-contamination through rigorous hygiene practices at slaughter, retail, and consumer levels is paramount for food safety.
- Detection methodologies involve standardized culture-based methods (e.g., SNI ISO 6579-1:2017 for *Salmonella*) and molecular techniques like PCR and 16S rDNA sequencing for pathogen identification and antimicrobial resistance gene detection.
---
## Introduction
[Bacterial contamination of chicken meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-chicken-meat-salmonella-e-coli-campylobacter) represents a persistent challenge in veterinary public health and [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention). Chicken meat is a highly nutritious substrate that supports the proliferation of diverse bacterial populations, including both spoilage organisms and clinically significant pathogens [1, 2]. The intrinsic composition of chicken muscle tissue, characterized by high water activity (aw > 0.98), neutral pH (approximately 6.2 to 6.4 post-rigor), and abundant proteins and micronutrients, creates a permissive environment for bacterial growth [2, 3]. Understanding the biological, chemical, and physical mechanisms underlying contamination is essential for developing effective control strategies.
The primary bacterial pathogens associated with chicken meat include thermophilic *Campylobacter* species (principally *Campylobacter jejuni*), non-typhoidal *Salmonella* enterica serovars, and pathogenic *Escherichia coli* strains [4, 5]. These organisms originate from the gastrointestinal tract of healthy carrier birds and contaminate carcasses during slaughter and processing [1, 6]. Additionally, indicator organisms such as coliforms, *Enterococcus* spp., and aerobic plate counts (APC) are used to assess hygiene levels [1, 7].
This review examines the sources, growth dynamics, detection methodologies, and control measures related to [bacterial contamination of chicken meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-chicken-meat-salmonella-campylobacter-food-safety), with a focus on veterinary and diagnostic perspectives. The discussion incorporates data from slaughterhouse surveys, retail market analyses, and experimental studies that illuminate risk factors and mitigation strategies.
## Common [Bacterial Pathogens in Chicken Meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-pathogens-chicken-meat-risk-assessment-public-health)
### *Campylobacter jejuni* and *Campylobacter coli*
*Campylobacter* species are the leading bacterial cause of foodborne illness in many developed regions [5]. *Campylobacter jejuni* and *C. coli* are thermophilic, microaerophilic, Gram-negative spirilla that colonize the cecal and intestinal mucosa of poultry at high densities, often exceeding 10^6 CFU/g of cecal contents [5, 8]. Contamination of carcasses occurs primarily through fecal leakage during evisceration and cross-contamination from intestinal contents [5]. Studies using [nested PCR](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/nested-pcr-principles-protocol) targeting the hippuricase gene and 16S rRNA have demonstrated high prevalence in retail chicken meat [8]. Slaughterhouse type significantly influences contamination levels: backyard slaughter operations show higher *C. jejuni* counts compared to commercial facilities, particularly associated with the chilling step [5]. The incorporation of ice in post-evisceration soaking reduces carcass temperature and inhibits *Campylobacter* growth [5].
### *Salmonella* enterica Serovars
Non-typhoidal *Salmonella* remains a major zoonotic pathogen transmitted through poultry products [9, 10]. In traditional markets, prevalence rates vary widely. For example, a study in Denpasar, Indonesia reported 58.33% of chicken meat samples positive for *Salmonella* sp. [10], while a study in East Surabaya found 3.3% contamination [9]. In the Philippines, all fresh chicken meat and isaw samples exceeded the absence requirement for *Salmonella* spp. [11]. Risk factors for *Salmonella* contamination include open or semi-closed slaughterhouse systems (odds ratio [OR] = 1.79) and lack of dedicated equipment for specific slaughtering areas (OR = 1.65) [1].
Detection of *Salmonella* typically follows standardized methods such as SNI ISO 6579-1:2017, which includes pre-enrichment in buffered peptone water, selective enrichment in tetrathionate broth, isolation on *Salmonella* Shigella agar, and serological confirmation with polyvalent O and H antisera [12]. Biochemical identification using Triple Sugar Iron Agar (TSIA), urease, sulfide indole motility (SIM), and Simmons citrate agar confirms the genus [9, 13].
### *Escherichia coli* and Coliforms
*Escherichia coli* is a ubiquitous component of the avian gut microbiota, but pathogenic strains carrying virulence genes and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) determinants are frequently isolated from chicken meat [14]. Studies in Thailand reported 33.3% non-compliance for *E. coli* in slaughterhouse meat samples [1]. In Kenya, 61.6% of raw chicken samples were positive for *E. coli*, with 87.3% of isolates exhibiting multidrug resistance (MDR) [4]. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) producing *E. coli* is a growing concern. In Tunisia, 82% of chicken carcasses were contaminated with *E. coli*, and 76.5% of isolates were ESBL producers harboring *bla*CTX-M, *bla*TEM, and *bla*SHV genes. A Vietnamese study detected ESBL genes in 54% of chicken meat samples using real-time PCR, with *bla*TEM being the most prevalent.
Coliform counts serve as hygiene indicators. A literature review of Indonesian traditional markets found that 87 of 103 chicken meat samples were coliform-positive [3]. High coliform levels indicate inadequate sanitation during processing and storage [3].
## Growth Conditions and Bacterial Dynamics
### Temperature and Storage Effects
The question "does cooked chicken grow bacteria" is relevant to [post-cooking contamination](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacteria-survive-cooked-chicken-post-cooking). Ready-to-eat (RTE) chicken meat is susceptible to recontamination after thermal processing. Storage temperature dramatically influences bacterial community structure. High-throughput 16S rDNA sequencing revealed that storage at 4°C, 8°C, and 22°C progressively decreased microbial diversity while increasing interaction network complexity [15]. At 22°C, *Pseudomonas* and *Enterobacter* dominated, with 44 positive and 45 negative interactions among taxa [15]. Aerobic plate counts increase with storage time; in broiler breast meat at day 15 of production, APC was 34.15 × 10^3 CFU, increasing to 82.15 × 10^3 CFU by day 35.
### Does Chicken Get Bacteria After Slaughter?
Chicken meat is sterile in the living bird muscle but becomes contaminated during slaughter. The scalding process without temperature control significantly increases the risk of APC (OR = 4.84), *Staphylococcus aureus* (OR = 2.68), *Enterococcus* spp. (OR = 3.38), coliforms (OR = 3.01), and *E. coli* (OR = 2.69) [1]. Evisceration is another critical point; eviscerated carcasses were more likely to be non-compliant for *E. coli* (OR = 1.96) [1]. Washing carcasses with water alone is unreliable for reducing bacterial contamination in unhygienic market conditions [16].
## Cooking Safety and Thermal Inactivation
### [Does Cooking Chicken Kill Bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/food-safety-poultry-cooking-temperatures-pathogen-elimination)?
Proper cooking to an internal temperature of at least 74°C (165°F) is effective for inactivating vegetative bacterial cells, including *Salmonella*, *Campylobacter*, and *E. coli*. However, the question "what kills [chicken bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-parasitic-contaminants-poultry-meat-eggs)" extends beyond heat alone. Thermal death kinetics depend on temperature, time, and food matrix. Carvacrol (a natural compound from oregano) combined with blue light at 405 nm achieved a 5.62 log CFU/mL reduction in *Salmonella* Typhimurium on chicken meat, extending shelf life by maintaining moisture, pH, and color. Neutral electrolyzed water immersion for 20 minutes reduced APC from 5.40 to 3.90 log CFU/g, *Enterobacteriaceae* from 3.63 to 2.69 log CFU/g, and *E. coli* from 2.93 to 2.18 log CFU/g [17].
### Can You Get E. coli from Chicken?
Raw or undercooked chicken meat is a recognized vehicle for *E. coli* transmission. The question "can you get e coli from chicken" is answered affirmatively by numerous studies demonstrating contamination rates ranging from 20% to 82% of retail samples [13]. Ground chicken products, where surface bacteria are distributed throughout the product, present higher risk if undercooked. The term "[ground chicken bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-poultry-meat-ground-chicken-chicken-feces-food-safety)" refers to the homogenization of pathogens from skin and muscle surfaces into the interior, requiring thorough cooking to ensure safety.
## Outbreak Surveillance and Antimicrobial Resistance
### [Chicken Bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-parasitic-contaminants-poultry-meat-eggs) Outbreak Dynamics
Surveillance data from multiple countries indicate that "[chicken bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-parasitic-contaminants-poultry-meat-eggs) outbreak" events are frequently linked to *Salmonella* and *Campylobacter*. In North India, raw chicken meat samples harbored antimicrobial resistant bacterial pathogens [18]. In Iraq, frozen imported chicken meat contained diverse bacterial species identified by 16S rDNA sequencing, including novel strains deposited in GenBank [2]. Cross-contamination in retail environments, such as shared cutting boards and utensils, contributes to outbreaks [7, 14].
### Antibiotic Resistance Profiles
The prevalence of antibiotic-resistant [bacteria in chicken](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/killing-bacteria-in-chicken-food-safety) meat is alarming. In Kenya, 95.3% of *E. coli* isolates were resistant to ampicillin, 78.7% to amoxicillin-clavulanate, and 72.0% to tetracycline [4]. In Bangladesh, high resistance to azithromycin (70.37%), tetracycline (63%), and ciprofloxacin (63%) was observed among isolates from meat-cutting surfaces [14]. Nigerian hybrid chicken meat showed *Enterobacter* spp. (28.15%) and *E. coli* (20.74%) as prevalent, with Gram-negative bacteria sensitive to penicillin and pefloxacin [19]. ESBL-producing *E. coli* from chicken meat in Tunisia carried the colistin resistance gene *mcr-1* in 5.9% of isolates.
Biofilm formation complicates eradication. Among *E. coli* isolates from Karachi, 59.2% were biofilm producers, with 31% classified as strong biofilm producers. Essential oils from clove and cinnamon inhibited these biofilm-forming strains at MIC values of 62.5 to 500 µL/mL.
## Prevention and Mitigation Strategies
### Slaughterhouse Hygiene
Risk factor analysis from Thailand provides evidence-based recommendations. Controlling scalding water temperature, ensuring proper evisceration, maintaining closed slaughterhouse systems, and using dedicated equipment for each processing step reduce contamination [1]. A cluster analysis approach using k-modes clustering showed that the chilling step, when conducted with ice, significantly reduces *C. jejuni* counts [5].
### Chemical and Natural Antimicrobials
Peroxyacetic acid (PAA) at 75-100 ppm and acidified sodium chlorite (ASC) at 225 ppm effectively reduce total viable counts and *Campylobacter* on chicken thigh pieces [20]. Citrus-derived additives, especially *Citrus hystrix*, significantly reduce aerobic bacterial levels and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) during storage [21]. *Moringa oleifera* leaf extracts at 0.5% and 0.25% suppressed aerobic plate counts, *E. coli*, and *[Listeria monocytogenes](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/listeria-monocytogenes-circling-disease-ruminants-silage)* in chicken breasts stored at 4°C and 25°C [22].
### Consumer-Level Practices
The question "does cooked chicken grow bacteria" highlights the importance of rapid cooling and proper storage. Cooked chicken should be refrigerated within 2 hours and consumed within 3-4 days. Reheating to 74°C kills organisms introduced after cooking. Hand washing, separate cutting boards for raw chicken, and avoiding cross-contamination are critical [3, 11].
### Regulatory Standards
Many countries enforce microbiological criteria. For example, Thailand's livestock authorities set limits for APC, *S. aureus*, *Enterococcus* spp., coliforms, *E. coli*, and *Salmonella* [1]. The Indonesian National Standard (SNI 7388:2009) stipulates absence of *Salmonella* in 25 g and maximum coliform counts [7]. Compliance monitoring at slaughterhouses and retail markets is essential for public health.
## Detection Methods and Diagnostic Workflow
```mermaid
flowchart TD
A["Sample Collection"] --> B["Pre-enrichment in Buffered Peptone Water"]
B --> C{"Selective Enrichment"}
C -->|"Salmonella"| D["Tetrathionate Broth"]
C -->|"Campylobacter"| E["Bolton Broth"]
C -->|"E. coli"| F["MacConkey / EMB Agar"]
D --> G["Salmonella Shigella Agar / XLD Agar"]
E --> H["mCCDA / Preston Agar"]
F --> I["Biochemical Confirmation: TSIA, Citrate, Urease, SIM"]
G --> I
H --> J["Gram Stain, Oxidase, Catalase"]
I --> K["Serological Confirmation: Polyvalent O and H Antisera"]
J --> L["PCR / 16S rDNA Sequencing"]
K --> M["Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing"]
L --> M
```
Table 1 summarizes representative contamination rates from selected studies.
| Pathogen / Indicator | Prevalence or Mean Count | Source | Country |
|-----------|-------------|----|-----|
| *Salmonella* spp. | 33.4% non-compliance | Slaughterhouses [1] | Thailand |
| *Salmonella* sp. | 58.33% | Traditional markets [10] | Indonesia |
| *E. coli* | 33.3% non-compliance | Slaughterhouses [1] | Thailand |
| *E. coli* | 61.6% | Retail and slaughter [4] | Kenya |
| *Campylobacter jejuni* | Higher in backyard vs. commercial | Slaughterhouses [5] | Thailand |
| Coliforms | 87/103 positive | Traditional markets [3] | Indonesia |
| ESBL-producing *E. coli* | 76.5% | Carcasses | Tunisia |
| MDR *E. coli* | 87.3% | Retail chicken [4] | Kenya |
## Conclusion
[Bacterial contamination of chicken meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-chicken-meat-salmonella-e-coli-campylobacter) remains a significant veterinary public health issue globally. The primary pathogens *Campylobacter*, *Salmonella*, and *E. coli* are consistently recovered from raw poultry products, with prevalence influenced by slaughterhouse hygiene, processing practices, and retail handling. Antimicrobial resistance complicates control, with MDR and ESBL-producing strains widely disseminated. Effective mitigation requires a multi-hurdle approach: good agricultural and slaughterhouse practices, chemical and natural antimicrobial interventions, proper cooking ([does cooking chicken kill bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/poultry-meat-food-safety-cooking-bacteria)), and consumer education on cross-contamination. Ongoing surveillance using culture-based and molecular methods (e.g., nested PCR, 16S rDNA sequencing, real-time PCR for resistance genes) is essential to monitor trends and inform policy.
## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides
* [Duck Diseases: A Comprehensive Overview for Veterinary Practitioners](/knowledge/bacteria/general/duck-diseases-comprehensive-overview-veterinary)
* [Salmonella Dublin in Cattle: Emerging Pathogen, Diagnostic Challenges, and Public Health Impact](/knowledge/bacteria/general/salmonella-dublin-cattle-emerging-pathogen-diagnostic-public-health)
* [Mycoplasma Infections in Poultry: Vaccination Strategies and Control Programs](/knowledge/bacteria/general/mycoplasma-infections-in-poultry-vaccination-strategies-and-control-programs)
## References
[1] Kunnanut Klaharn, D. Pichpol, T. Meeyam et al. [Bacterial contamination of chicken meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-chicken-meat-salmonella-campylobacter-food-safety) in slaughterhouses and the associated risk factors: A nationwide study in Thailand. *PLoS ONE*, 2022. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/099a1704528aeb8e6f47f0f7272df0aa174d5c31
[2] Ansam Jasim Mohammad, N. A. Alyousif. Short Communication: Molecular identification and assessment of bacterial contamination of frozen local and imported meat and chicken in Basrah, Iraq using 16S rDNA gene. *Biodiversitas Journal of Biological Diversity*, 2022. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/41f1dc69a4bd7165c3b6ee983abea953d1e4f5b3
[3] Khilda Tsania Latifah, M. Rafli, N. I. Prihanani. CONTAMINATION OF COLIFORM [BACTERIA IN CHICKEN](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/killing-bacteria-in-chicken-food-safety) AND FISH MEAT IN TRADITIONAL MARKET. *Buletin Veteriner Udayana*, 2025. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d57a56106a03a500e2e95f3ad23c5a27fc7fdae5
[4] Metrine Namalwa Nyanja, C. Mbindyo, D. Wanja et al. Bacterial contamination and prevalence of antibiotic-resistant *Escherichia coli* and *Salmonella* isolated from raw pork and chicken meat from slaughterhouses and retail markets in Kenya. *Veterinary World*, 2026. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0c084bf561c2d6989b18679a022ac5cb4005724c
[5] Chalita Jainonthee, W. Chaisowwong, Phakamas Ngamsanga et al. Exploring the influence of slaughterhouse type and slaughtering steps on *Campylobacter jejuni* contamination in chicken meat: A cluster analysis approach. *Heliyon*, 2024. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a099b5a2b0eade61bb7bcd85779680b1b60f6b1b
[6] N. Guergueb, N. Alloui, A. Ayachi et al. Effect of slaughterhouse hygienic practices on the [bacterial contamination of chicken meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-chicken-meat-salmonella-e-coli-campylobacter). *Journal*, 2014. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5ce09137155b7cf80a3eedf08e2091b173f13b92
[7] Delvino Sambeka, R. Mege, I. Setyawati et al. TESTING FOR BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION ON CHICKEN (*Gallus gallus domesticus*) IN THE TRADITIONAL MARKET OF SOUTH LANGOWAN DISTRICT. *Indonesian Biodiversity Journal*, 2024. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7e6e95dc0c470d0c97a5413e2011dbfa5e949eba
[8] E. Biliçi. The identification of *Campylobacter* contamination in chicken meat sold for human consumption in the Eşme district using nested PCR. *South African Journal of Animal Science*, 2025. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/af0f1716cc72ae977609bc8e6ee568370aa897ab
[9] W. Tyasningsih, Nurul Istiqomah, E. Hestianah et al. Detection of bacterial contamination *Salmonella* sp. on broiler chicken meat for sale at the traditional market of East Surabaya Indonesia. *GSC Biological and Pharmaceutical Sciences*, 2025. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/6ea7204ead10d9a943fbc6d07336df6c67094c78
[10] I. G. A. U. Surya Putra, A. E. Darwinata, Komang Januartha Putra Pinatih et al. PREVALENCE OF *Salmonella* sp. AND *Shigella* sp. BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION ON CHICKEN MEAT SOLD BY TRADITIONAL MARKET TRADERS IN DENPASAR CITY. *e-Jurnal Medika Udayana*, 2022. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/51ac0ef7f6f836db0e84fe362e6147ebe0d35a92
[11] Analou D. Dedal, Bernadette Nanual, Glory Miranda et al. Bacterial contamination of *Salmonella* spp. and *Escherichia coli* (Migula, 1895) in fresh chicken meat and chicken-based street food sold in the City of Mati. *The Palawan Scientist*, 2026. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/358096b6f747dfe84626f0664ce0047d2e3bf8a4
[12] Vika Aulia Royani, Dzulfikar Yusuf Priyanatha, Justin S Sitorus et al. Detection of *Salmonella* spp. Contamination in Chicken Meat Samples Using the SNI ISO 6579-1:2017 Method. *Jurnal Biogenerasi*, 2026. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/66ff47a1d02a82187340baf3e347eb3d4ebcd0a7
[13] Riki Jainudin, Hapsari Mahatmi, Romy Muhammad Dary Mufa et al. CONTAMINATION *ESCHERICHIA COLI* IN BROILER CHICKEN MEAT SOLD AT BADUNG MARKET, DENPASAR, BALI DURING THE TRANSITION SEASON. *Buletin Veteriner Udayana*, 2024. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/083acc9b09d6f33ada8eb99c4e0bd28a2d5f4866
[14] P. De, Nittananda Mondal, S. Das et al. Prevalence of Antibiotic Resistance Bacterial Contamination in Local Retail Meat Shops and Hygiene Practices by Vendors. *Journal of Biosciences and Public Health*, 2025. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/0b1b2efb33388880543235c9f517234da206dde8
[15] Mengjia Qiu, Xingning Xiao, Yingping Xiao et al. Dynamic Changes of Bacterial Communities and Microbial Association Networks in Ready-to-Eat Chicken Meat during Storage. *Foods*, 2022. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/8a4264fc25b458486a47063ff29a80553c1d5f4b
[16] Michel Dione, G. Ilboudo, A. Paré et al. Washing chicken carcasses with water proves unreliable as a means of reducing bacterial contamination in unhygienic market conditions in Burkina Faso. *Journal of Food Protection*, 2025. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2ad9909ab82497bd76254bae1b94092cd51e57c3
[17] A. M. Ahmed, Mona Mohammed Eissawy, Ibrahim Mohamed Fares et al. Quality Improvement of Chicken Meat Treated with Neutral Electrolyzed Water. *Journal of Applied Veterinary Science and Technology*, 2025. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/d2a97119d8982ff2bd73fe791feded78e40c3858
[18] Sunil Kumar, A. Rani, Mukesh Yadav et al. Detection of antimicrobial resistant bacterial pathogens in the raw chicken meat samples in North India. *Vegetos- An International Journal of Plant Research*, 2024. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/8097681ce46312f7d51f9bef6c522239741ca783
[19] T. J. Hemen, J. B. Orpin. Antibiotic Resistant Patterns of Bacterial Species Isolated among Hybrid Chicken Meat Sold within Makurdi Metropolis. *Sahel Journal of Life Sciences FUDMA*, 2025. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/7fefd0c7091b352797d976342871e7443a2468ea
[20] Andrea R. McWhorter, G. Weerasooriya, S. Sushanth Kumar et al. Comparison of peroxyacetic acid and acidified sodium chlorite at reducing natural microbial contamination on chicken meat pieces. *Poultry Science*, 2023. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/5f12b832649805a0e999890c525c50ad1b2ff354
[21] Rahmat Budiarto, T. Ujilestari, Barlah Rumhayati et al. Meta-analysis of citrus-derived additives on chicken meat quality and safety: a comprehensive evaluation of acceptability, physicochemical properties, and microbial contamination. *Poultry Science*, 2024. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/b9f4124a7e0e941d359f0762b154a8814542016c
[22] Z. Dubeni, L. Buwa-Komoreng, S. Mthi. The Potential Application of *Moringa oleifera* Extracts as Natural Preservatives of Chicken Meat. *Pharmacognosy Magazine*, 2024. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a2d7889e6fa23dcf3649575e258e5ba2a3b04028
[23] M. Qader, Marwa H. AlKhafaji. Detection of Bacterial Contamination of Imported Chicken Meat in Iraq. *Journal*, 2019. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/a17274c2f0d6d9309dde079dd9f55846b6f39808
[24] Xujun Ye, K. Iino, Shuhuai Zhang. Monitoring of bacterial contamination on chicken meat surface using a novel narrowband spectral index derived from hyperspectral imagery data. *Meat Science*, 2016. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/e2a8270c21c2a91daba9e43d5e2efbb1aa6de6
[25] Sun-Hee Kim, Kireev Na, Seung-Min Yang et al. Survey of [bacterial contamination of chicken meat](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/bacterial-contamination-chicken-meat-salmonella-campylobacter-food-safety). *Journal*, 2003. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/bac05fc3970c6ea116f351e217b1f8c2304553ae
[26] S. Q. COMPARISON BETWEEN CHICKEN AND RED MEAT SHAWARMA FOOD FOR BACTERIAL CONTAMINATION. *Journal*, 2021. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/6f22628ac3ef2f0ad13adb88c036e24be3114841
[27] A. Vaskas, Afshien Esmaili Dahesht, S. Seifi et al. Study and comparison of the bacterial contamination outbreak of chicken meat consumed in some cities of Mazandaran Province (Iran). *Journal*, 2012. https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/2a2595e54f8148988adb1ba320f84073e01c775b