# [Avian Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-poultry-wild-birds) ([Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera)) in Poultry: Etiology, Clinical Signs, and Control ## Key Takeaways - Avian cholera is caused by the Gram-negative bacterium *Pasteurella multocida*, with serogroup A being most common in poultry, and manifests in peracute, acute, and chronic forms, leading to high mortality in susceptible flocks. - Transmission occurs through direct contact, inhalation of aerosols, or ingestion of contaminated feed/water, with outbreaks often triggered by stress factors like overcrowding or concurrent infections. - Diagnosis relies on isolation and identification of *P. multocida* via culture and Gram staining, supplemented by rapid molecular methods like PCR targeting the *kmt1* gene and serological tests (ELISA) for antibody detection. - Antimicrobial therapy is crucial for acute cases, but multidrug resistance is a growing concern, necessitating susceptibility testing; alternative treatments like phage therapy and probiotics show promise. - Control strategies integrate stringent biosecurity measures, improved management practices, and vaccination using inactivated or live attenuated vaccines, with ongoing research into subunit and OMV vaccines for enhanced protection. - Zoonotic transmission to humans is rare and typically results in localized wound infections, posing a low public health risk, primarily to immunocompromised individuals and poultry workers. --- ## Introduction [Avian cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-pasteurella-multocida-poultry), also known as [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-in-poultry), is a highly contagious bacterial disease of domestic and wild birds caused by *Pasteurella multocida* [1, 2, 3]. The disease manifests in peracute, acute, and chronic forms and is responsible for significant economic losses in poultry production worldwide [3, 4, 5]. Mortality can reach 100% in susceptible flocks, particularly in slow-growing broiler chickens and turkeys [3, 6]. This article provides a detailed review of the etiology, epidemiology, clinical signs, pathology, diagnostic approaches, treatment options, and control measures for [fowl cholera in poultry](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-drug-choice), with emphasis on recent molecular and immunological advances. ## Etiology: [Fowl Cholera Is Caused by Which Bacteria](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-clinical-manifestations-control-poultry) [Fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera-poultry) is caused by the Gram-negative, non-motile, facultative anaerobic coccobacillus *Pasteurella multocida* [1, 7, 8]. The bacterium is classified into five capsular serogroups (A, B, D, E, F) and 16 lipopolysaccharide (LPS) genotypes based on the Heddleston scheme [8, 9]. In poultry, serogroup A (especially A:1, A:3, and A:4) is most frequently isolated, although serogroups B and D have also been reported [5, 10, 11]. The complete genome sequences of multiple *P. multocida* isolates have been published, revealing extensive genomic diversity and the presence of virulence-associated genes such as *kmt1*, *toxA*, *fhaB1*, *hyaD*, and LPS outer core transferase genes (*pcgD*, *hptE*) [8, 12, 13, 14]. The bacterium produces a polysaccharide capsule that inhibits phagocytosis and a lipopolysaccharide that triggers a strong inflammatory response [1, 15]. Key virulence factors include filamentous hemagglutinin (FhaB1), which mediates adhesion to host epithelial cells, and the enzyme hyaluronidase (HyaD), which degrades hyaluronic acid in connective tissues and facilitates bacterial dissemination [12, 13]. The LPS outer core structure is critical for full virulence; truncation of the outer core attenuates the bacterium in ducks [14, 16]. Phase variation in glycosyltransferase genes can alter LPS structure and contribute to immune evasion during outbreaks [9]. ## Epidemiology *P. multocida* is carried asymptomatically in the nasopharynx of many healthy birds and mammals, serving as a reservoir for transmission [17, 18]. Outbreaks often occur following stress factors such as overcrowding, poor ventilation, nutritional deficiencies, or concurrent infections (e.g., *[Mycoplasma gallisepticum](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/mycoplasma-gallisepticum-poultry-chronic-respiratory-disease-control)*) [4, 6]. Transmission occurs via direct contact with infected birds, inhalation of aerosolized respiratory droplets, or ingestion of contaminated feed and water [4, 17]. Fomites, equipment, and personnel can also mechanically spread the bacterium [4]. The disease has a global distribution and affects chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese, and numerous wild bird species [3, 5, 11, 17]. In Bangladesh, multidrug-resistant *P. multocida* type B:2 has been reported in [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-cholera) outbreaks, highlighting the need for region-specific control strategies [10]. In Australia, sequence type ST20 is widespread in poultry farms and can infect wild waterbirds, indicating potential spillover events [17]. ### [Avian Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-pasteurella-multocida) Transmission to Humans *Pasteurella multocida* is primarily an animal pathogen, but zoonotic transmission to humans can occur through bites, scratches, or direct contact with infected birds or their secretions [7, 18]. Human infections typically manifest as localized wound infections, cellulitis, or, rarely, respiratory disease [7]. However, [avian cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-fowl-cholera-poultry-wild-birds) is not considered a major public health concern, and human cases are sporadic [18]. The risk is elevated for immunocompromised individuals and poultry workers [7]. ## Clinical Signs The clinical presentation of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-reference) varies with the virulence of the strain, host species, and route of infection [3, 19]. Three main forms are recognized: - **Peracute form**: Sudden death with no premonitory signs. Mortality can reach 100% within 24-48 hours [3, 19]. This form is common in highly susceptible flocks, such as slow-growing broilers and turkeys [3, 6]. - **Acute form**: Fever (up to 44°C), depression, anorexia, ruffled feathers, mucoid or bloody diarrhea, increased respiratory rate, and cyanosis of the comb and wattles [3, 15, 20]. Swelling of the wattles and sinuses is characteristic [3]. Mortality peaks within 3-5 days [4]. - **Chronic form**: Localized infections including swollen joints (arthritis), sternal bursitis, conjunctivitis, and torticollis due to otitis media [3, 20]. Chronic cases are more common in flocks with partial immunity or following subacute outbreaks [20]. In ducks, liver injury mediated by inflammatory, apoptotic, and autophagic pathways has been described [15]. In broilers, *P. multocida* induces liver pyroptosis through the MAPK-NLRP3-GSDMD signaling pathway [1]. ## Pathology Gross lesions in acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-comprehensive-veterinary-reference) include petechial hemorrhages on the heart, epicardium, and serosal surfaces; multifocal hepatic necrosis (small, pale foci); splenomegaly; and pulmonary congestion [1, 3, 15]. The liver may appear friable and mottled [1]. In chronic cases, caseous exudate is found in the wattles, joints, and sinuses [3]. Histopathological examination reveals hepatocellular necrosis, infiltration of heterophils and macrophages, and fibrin thrombi in hepatic sinusoids [1, 15]. In the lungs, interstitial pneumonia and congestion are common [6]. The MAPK-NLRP3-GSDMD pathway mediates pyroptosis in broiler hepatocytes, characterized by caspase-1 activation and gasdermin D cleavage [1]. In ducks, autophagy and apoptosis contribute to liver injury [15]. ## Diagnostics Definitive diagnosis of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-avian-pasteurellosis-poultry) requires isolation and identification of *P. multocida* from affected tissues (liver, spleen, bone marrow, or exudate) [3, 19, 21]. The bacterium grows on blood agar or [MacConkey agar](/knowledge/diagnostics/microbiology/macconkey-agar-selective-differential-enteric) (weak growth) as small, gray, mucoid colonies [19]. Gram staining reveals Gram-negative coccobacilli with bipolar staining (safety pin appearance) [19]. Molecular methods offer rapid and specific detection. Conventional PCR targeting the *kmt1* gene is widely used [7, 21]. [Loop-mediated isothermal amplification](/knowledge/diagnostics/molecular/lamp-assay-rapid-detection-african-swine-fever-virus-oral-fluids) (LAMP) assays provide a field-deployable alternative with sensitivity comparable to PCR [21]. Real-time PCR and whole-genome sequencing are employed for epidemiological typing and antimicrobial resistance gene profiling [2, 8, 18]. Serological diagnosis using indirect ELISA kits has been developed for detecting antibodies against *P. multocida* in chickens [22]. These assays are useful for monitoring vaccine responses and herd immunity [22, 23, 24]. The following diagnostic workflow summarizes the recommended approach: ```mermaid flowchart TD A["Clinical suspicion: sudden death, fever, cyanosis"] --> B["Postmortem examination: petechiae, liver necrosis"] B --> C["Sample collection: liver, spleen, bone marrow, wattle exudate"] C --> D["Gram stain: bipolar coccobacilli"] D --> E["Culture on blood agar: mucoid colonies"] E --> F["Biochemical identification: oxidase+, catalase+"] F --> G["PCR: kmt1 gene detection"] G --> H["Serotyping: capsular and LPS typing"] H --> I["Antimicrobial susceptibility testing"] I --> J["Confirm outbreak and guide treatment"] ``` ## Treatment Antimicrobial therapy is the mainstay of treatment for acute [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-causal-agent). Historically, tetracyclines, sulfonamides, and penicillin derivatives have been used [2, 7]. However, multidrug resistance is increasingly reported, particularly against tetracycline, sulfonamides, and aminoglycosides [2, 7, 10]. Resistance genes such as *tet*(H), *bla*ROB-1, and *strA-strB* have been identified in avian isolates [2, 7]. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing is essential to guide therapy [2]. In cases of confirmed resistance, alternative agents such as fluoroquinolones or florfenicol may be considered, although resistance to these has also emerged [2, 7]. Phage therapy using lytic bacteriophages (e.g., vB_PmuM_CFP3) has shown promise as an alternative or adjunct to antibiotics [25]. Probiotic formulations containing multiple *Lactobacillus* and *Bacillus* strains have reduced mortality in broilers experimentally infected with *P. multocida* [26]. Plant extracts, such as wild Egyptian artichoke extract, have demonstrated in vitro antibacterial activity against *P. multocida* [27]. ## Control and Prevention Control of [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-causative-agent) relies on biosecurity, management practices, and vaccination [4, 5, 28]. Biosecurity measures include all-in-all-out production, cleaning and disinfection of facilities, control of rodents and wild birds, and quarantine of new stock [4, 17]. ### Vaccination Both inactivated (bacterin) and live attenuated vaccines are available [5, 28, 29, 30]. Inactivated vaccines are commonly used in commercial poultry and are often adjuvanted with aluminum hydroxide or oil emulsions [23, 28, 30]. Novel vaccine approaches include: - **Subunit vaccines**: Recombinant lipoproteins such as PlpE and VacJ, and outer membrane protein H, have shown immunoprotective effects in chickens and ducks [23, 31, 32, 33, 34]. Multi-epitope proteins incorporating PlpE epitopes enhance immunogenicity [23]. - **Outer membrane vesicle (OMV) vaccines**: *E. coli*-derived OMVs displaying PlpE protein induce strong antibody responses [31]. - **Gamma-irradiated vaccines**: Irradiated whole-cell vaccines formulated with various adjuvants elicit both humoral and cell-mediated immunity [24, 35]. - **Hydrogel-based vaccines**: Gel 01 hydrogel inactivated vaccine provides sustained antigen release and improved protection [28]. - **Live attenuated vaccines**: Serial passage-derived strains (e.g., PMZ8 in ducks) show reduced virulence and good immunogenicity [29]. Vaccination strategies should be tailored to the prevalent serotypes and local epidemiological conditions [5, 10]. In Bangladesh, for example, type B:2 is common, and vaccines should include this serotype [10]. ### [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-clinical-manifestations-control-poultry) Meaning in Bengali In Bengali, [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-clinical-signs-post-mortem-lesions-poultry) is commonly referred to as "মুরগির কলেরা" (murgir cholera), reflecting the disease's clinical similarity to human cholera (diarrhea and rapid death) [10]. The term is used in veterinary extension materials and outbreak reports in Bangladesh [10]. ## Conclusion [Avian cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/avian-cholera-pasteurella-multocida-poultry) remains a major threat to poultry health worldwide. Advances in genomics, immunology, and vaccine technology have improved our understanding of *P. multocida* pathogenesis and host responses [1, 2, 15, 18]. Integrated control programs combining biosecurity, antimicrobial stewardship, and effective vaccination are essential to reduce the impact of this disease [4, 5, 30]. Continued surveillance of antimicrobial resistance and genomic diversity will inform future control strategies [2, 7, 10]. ## References [1] Yan D, Xu G, Cheng Y, et al. *Pasteurella multocida* causes liver pyroptosis in broilers through the MAPK-NLRP3-GSDMD signaling pathway. Vet Microbiol. 2026. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42139792/ [2] Miao F, Dai B, Li Z, et al. Antimicrobial resistance and genomic characteristics of avian *Pasteurella multocida*. Poult Sci. 2026. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41637789/ [3] Miller I, Jerry C, Nguyen V, et al. 100% Mortality in Commercial Slow-Growing Broiler Chickens with Acute [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-etiology-epidemiology-clinical-signs-pathology-diagnostics-treatment-control-poultry). 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Novel multi-strain probiotics reduces *Pasteurella multocida* induced [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-etiology-epidemiology-control) mortality in broilers. Sci Rep. 2021. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33903662/ [27] Wahdan A, Elsebai MF, Elhaig MM, et al. Innovative use of wild Egyptian artichoke extract to control [fowl cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-game-birds-pasteurella-multocida-pathogenesis-management) in vitro. Vet World. 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40182829/ [28] Chen J, Sun Y, Hu Y, et al. Evaluation of the immunoprotective effect of gel 01 hydrogel inactivated vaccine against *Pasteurella multocida* infection in chickens. Microb Pathog. 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40934985/ [29] Ji X, Meng Y, Yang H, et al. Attenuation mechanisms and vaccine potential of the serial passage-derived *Pasteurella multocida* strain PMZ8 in ducks. Poult Sci. 2026. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41747463/ [30] Ghadimipour R, Ghorbanpoor M, Gharibi D, et al. Effects of Selected Adjuvants on Immunogenicity and Protectivity of *Pasteurella multocida* Bacterin Vaccine in Chickens. Arch Razi Inst. 2021. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35096310/ [31] Li Y, Chen L, Xiao J, et al. Immunoprotective efficacy of *Escherichia coli*-derived outer membrane vesicles displaying PlpE protein of *Pasteurella multocida*. Vaccine. 2025. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39603075/ [32] Chung YC, Cheng LT, Chu CY, et al. Flagellin Enhances the Immunogenicity of *Pasteurella multocida* Lipoprotein E Subunit Vaccine. Avian Dis. 2024. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39400212/ [33] Cheng LT, Chu CY, Vu-Khac H, et al. Signal sequence contributes to the immunogenicity of *Pasteurella multocida* lipoprotein E. Poult Sci. 2023. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36423524/ [34] Li Y, Xiao J, Chang YF, et al. Immunogenicity and protective efficacy of the recombinant *Pasteurella multocida* lipoproteins VacJ and PlpE, and outer membrane protein H from *P. multocida* A:1 in ducks. Front Immunol. 2022. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36275745/ [35] Dessalegn B, Bitew M, Asfaw D, et al. Gamma-Irradiated [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-pasteurella-multocida-outbreak-management) Mucosal Vaccine: Potential Vaccine Candidate for Safe and Effective Immunization of Chicken Against [Fowl Cholera](/knowledge/bacteria/avian-bacteria/fowl-cholera-poultry-pasteurella-multocida). Front Immunol. 2021. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34917086/ ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Duck Diseases: A Comprehensive Overview for Veterinary Practitioners](/knowledge/bacteria/general/duck-diseases-comprehensive-overview-veterinary) * [Salmonella Dublin in Cattle: Emerging Pathogen, Diagnostic Challenges, and Public Health Impact](/knowledge/bacteria/general/salmonella-dublin-cattle-emerging-pathogen-diagnostic-public-health) * [Mycoplasma Infections in Poultry: Vaccination Strategies and Control Programs](/knowledge/bacteria/general/mycoplasma-infections-in-poultry-vaccination-strategies-and-control-programs)