# Pig Farming: Breeding, Farrowing, Nursery, Grow-Finish, Nutrition, and Biosecurity ## Key Takeaways - **System Planning & Biosecurity:** Successful pig farming necessitates strategic planning of production models (farrow-to-finish, wean-to-finish, etc.), site selection considering prevailing winds and distance from other farms, and strict biosecurity zoning (clean, transition, dirty zones) to mitigate disease introduction, with visitor logs and vehicle wash records being critical. - **Nutrition & Water Management:** Diets must be stage-specific, balancing energy and amino acids; ingredient quality, including mycotoxin analysis, is paramount, and feeding systems should optimize intake and minimize waste, while water quality (TDS, sulfate, nitrates) and delivery rate (0.5-1 L/min for nipple drinkers) are critical for feed intake and health. - **Facilities & Environmental Control:** Barn design, particularly ventilation (mechanical or natural) and temperature control (32-35°C for newborns, 16-22°C for grow-finish), are essential for pig comfort and health, with flooring type impacting welfare and waste management systems requiring environmental compliance. - **Daily Management & Health Monitoring:** Routine daily checks for health and welfare indicators (body condition, gait, respiratory signs), verification of feed and water delivery, and rigorous cleaning/disinfection protocols between groups are fundamental to disease prevention and optimal performance. - **Farrowing & Nursery Criticality:** Farrowing requires meticulous preparation, including disinfection and temperature control (34-37°C creep, 18-20°C room), and immediate piglet care (colostrum intake, processing), while the nursery phase demands careful management of weaning stress, weight sorting, and facility hygiene to ensure successful transition and subsequent growth. --- ## Section 1: System Planning, Nutrition, Water, Facilities, and Daily Management Pig farming is the integrated management of swine across the production cycle from breeding through market weight. Successful pig farming requires careful planning of the production system, balanced nutrition, reliable water supply, functional facilities, and consistent daily oversight. This section provides a foundational overview of these core areas, focusing on practical decision making, record keeping, animal welfare, worker safety, food safety, and appropriate escalation to specialists. ### At a Glance | Area | Key Considerations | Primary Reference | |------|-------------------|-------------------| | System Planning | Production type, site, stocking density, biosecurity zones | [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) | | Nutrition | Stage specific diets, ingredient quality, feeding methods | [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) | | Water | Quality parameters, delivery rate, daily monitoring | [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) | | Facilities | Ventilation, flooring, waste management, worker safety | [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) | | Daily Management | Health checks, feed and water verification, cleaning, records | [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) and [NAHMS](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) | ### Table of Contents 1. System Planning 1.1 Production System Selection 1.2 Site Selection and Biosecurity 1.3 Stocking Density and Group Size 1.4 Records to Keep 1.5 Uncertainty in Pig Farming 1.6 Escalation to Extension Specialist and Engineer 2. Nutrition 2.1 Nutrient Requirements by Stage 2.2 Feed Formulation and Ingredient Quality 2.3 Mycotoxin Management 2.4 Feeding Systems and Strategies 2.5 Records Related to Nutrition 2.6 Uncertainty in Nutrition 2.7 Escalation to a Nutritionist 3. Water 3.1 Water Quality and Quantity 3.2 Water Delivery Systems 3.3 Daily Water Monitoring 3.4 Uncertainty in Water Supply 3.5 Escalation to a Laboratory or Engineer 4. Facilities and Housing 4.1 Barn Types and Ventilation 4.2 Temperature Control and Flooring 4.3 Waste Management 4.4 Worker Safety in Facilities 4.5 Escalation to an Engineer 5. Daily Management 5.1 Routine Health and Welfare Checks 5.2 Feeding and Watering Verification 5.3 Cleaning and Disinfection 5.4 Food Safety Considerations 5.5 Worker Safety Protocols 5.6 Record Keeping and Review 5.7 Escalation to a Veterinarian or Regulator --- ## 1. System Planning System planning determines the structure, capacity, and long term viability of a pig farm. It involves selecting a production model, choosing a suitable site, designing biosecure zones, and establishing record keeping protocols. Each decision affects animal welfare, disease risk, labor efficiency, and environmental impact. ### 1.1 Production System Selection Pig farming systems can be classified by the stages of production managed on one site. Common models include: - **Farrow to finish**: Breeding, farrowing, nursery, and grow finish all on the same farm. This requires the most facilities and management skill but allows complete control over genetics and health. - **Farrow to wean** (breeder weaner): The farm produces weaned piglets sold to nursery or grow finish operations. - **Wean to finish**: Weaned pigs are brought in and raised to market weight. No breeding or farrowing occurs. - **Finishing only**: Feeder pigs are purchased and raised to slaughter weight. This is the simplest model. The choice depends on capital, labor availability, market access, and disease control goals. The [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) outlines the advantages and constraints of each model. For example, farrow to finish offers biosecurity advantages by avoiding pig movement onto the farm, but it also concentrates risk if disease enters the breeding herd. A practical decision path: - If starting with limited capital, choose wean to finish or finishing only to reduce investment in breeding and farrowing facilities. - If disease pressure in the region is high, consider farrow to finish to limit introduction of pathogens. - If market prices are volatile, use a contract with a packer to reduce price risk, then adapt the system to meet the contract requirements. ### 1.2 Site Selection and Biosecurity Site selection strongly influences disease risk and operational efficiency. Key factors include: - Distance from other pig farms (minimum separation, often hundreds of meters or more depending on local regulations) - Direction of prevailing winds (avoid placing farms downwind of other swine operations) - Access to clean water and utilities - Soil drainage for waste management - Road access that allows deliveries without crossing contaminated areas The [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) provide guidance on biosecurity zoning. A typical layout includes: - **Clean zone** (barns, office) where pigs and feed are kept - **Transition zone** (shower in, vehicle wash station) - **Dirty zone** (loading area, manure storage, dead stock disposal) Fencing, signage, and locks restrict entry. All visitors and workers should shower and change into farm specific clothing before entering the clean zone. Records to keep for biosecurity: - Visitor log with date, time, purpose, and recent exposure to other swine - Vehicle entries and wash records - Supply deliveries and source of incoming pigs or feed - Mortality disposal records ### 1.3 Stocking Density and Group Size Stocking density affects pig welfare, growth performance, and disease transmission. Pigs need enough floor space to stand, lie down, and access feed and water without competition. While exact numbers depend on pig size and facility design, the general principle is to avoid overcrowding. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) notes that inadequate space leads to increased aggression, skin lesions, and reduced feed intake. For growing pigs, space allowance is typically expressed as square meters per pig. In confined systems, the space should increase as pigs grow. Static groups (all in all out) reduce social stress and improve health, as emphasized by [USDA APHIS](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) guidelines. A practical decision path for group size: - In nursery: small groups (20 40 piglets) allow close observation and reduce disease spread. - In grow finish: groups of 50 200 pigs are common. Larger groups can reduce pen aggression if pens are well designed with multiple feeding points. - Avoid mixing pigs from different sources unless a quarantine and acclimation protocol is followed. Records to keep: - Pen number and group composition (source, age, weight range) - Mortality and culling events per pen - Feed and water consumption per pen ### 1.4 Records to Keep Systematic records support decision making and compliance with regulatory requirements. Essential records include: - **Production records**: farrowing dates, piglets born alive, stillbirths, weaning weight, number weaned - **Health records**: disease incidents, treatments, vaccinations, mortality with cause - **Feed records**: tonnage used, mill source, batch numbers, mycotoxin test results - **Water records**: flow rates, quality test results (if done) - **Biosecurity records**: visitor and vehicle logs, cleaning and disinfection schedule - **Reproduction records**: mating dates, boar or AI semen source, conception rates - **Financial records**: input costs, pig sales, medication costs The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) provides survey based benchmarks for these parameters. Records should be kept for at least three years, longer for certain regulated substances. ### 1.5 Uncertainty in Pig Farming Uncertainty arises from multiple sources: markets (feed price, pork price), disease outbreaks ([African swine fever](/knowledge/bioinformatics/african-swine-fever-computational-models-for-early-detection-and-spread-prediction-in-wild-boar-populations), [porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome](/knowledge/viruses/general/porcine-reproductive-and-respiratory-syndrome-genomic-surveillance-and-vaccine-strategies-using-bioinformatics)), weather extremes, and regulatory changes. Farmers cannot eliminate uncertainty but can reduce its impact through: - Maintaining a health and management buffer (e.g., extra weaner capacity, feed storage for two to four weeks) - Diversifying markets or using contracts - Participating in disease surveillance programs through veterinary services - Keeping emergency plans for disease outbreak or feed shortage When uncertainty becomes a threat to animal welfare or farm viability, escalate to an extension specialist or agricultural economist. ### 1.6 Escalation to Extension Specialist and Engineer Extension specialists (from universities or government agencies) can advise on production system design, new technology, and financial planning. Engineers are needed for facility design, ventilation, waste management systems, and water system installation. Contact an extension specialist when: - Considering a new production model or significant expansion - Evaluating alternative waste management technologies - Interpreting regional production data for benchmarking Contact an engineer when: - Planning new barn construction or major renovation - Designing ventilation or manure handling systems - Addressing structural or safety concerns in existing facilities --- ## 2. Nutrition Nutrition is the single largest variable cost in pig farming. Balanced diets support growth, reproduction, immunity, and meat quality. Understanding nutrient requirements by stage, feed ingredient quality, and feeding strategies is essential. ### 2.1 Nutrient Requirements by Stage Pig nutrient needs change with age, production stage, and environment. Key stages and their nutritional focus: - **Gestation**: maintain body condition, support fetal development. Lower energy density than lactation. - **Lactation**: high energy and amino acid demand to support milk production. Sows may lose body weight if intake is inadequate. - **Nursery**: easily digestible ingredients, adequate lysine for lean growth, immune support (e.g., zinc, copper at pharmacological levels, but with attention to regulatory limits). - **Grow finish**: increasing energy and lysine for rapid lean tissue deposition. Later phases may include lower protein to control cost and reduce nitrogen excretion. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) provides detailed tables of recommended nutrient concentrations for each phase. These are guidelines and should be adjusted based on genetic potential, feed ingredient composition, and observed performance. A simplified table of typical phase definitions: | Phase | Typical Age or Weight | Key Nutrient Focus | |-------|----------------------|-------------------| | Gestation | Breeding to farrowing | Body condition maintenance, fetal growth | | Lactation | Farrowing to weaning | High energy and amino acids | | Nursery | Weaning to 25 30 kg | Highly digestible, immune support | | Grow finish | 30 kg to market weight | Lean growth, feed efficiency | ### 2.2 Feed Formulation and Ingredient Quality Feed formulation uses least cost programming to meet nutrient specifications while managing cost. Common ingredients include corn, soybean meal, wheat, barley, and by products like distillers grains. Quality varies by crop year, storage, and processing. Monitor ingredient quality through: - Protein and moisture content (tested by supplier or third party lab) - Mycotoxin analysis (especially aflatoxin, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone) - Particle size (fineness affects digestibility and gut health) - Fat rancidity (can cause feed refusal and health issues) The [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) offers resources on feed quality assurance. If feed intake drops unexpectedly, check ingredient quality before adjusting formulation. Records to keep: - Feed formulation sheets with ingredient percentages and nutrient specs - Mill reports and batch numbers - Mycotoxin test results - Feed delivery dates and amounts per pen or building ### 2.3 Mycotoxin Management Mycotoxins are toxic compounds produced by molds in grain. They cause feed refusal, vomiting, reduced growth, immune suppression, and reproductive problems. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) lists clinical signs associated with specific mycotoxins. Management strategies: - Source grain from suppliers with testing programs - Store grain at moisture below 14%, in cool, dry conditions - Use binders (e.g., clay based) in feed if contamination is low to moderate - Test suspect feed, especially after wet harvests or prolonged storage - Discard or dilute heavily contaminated grain If signs consistent with mycotoxin exposure appear (e.g., vomiting, vulvar swelling in prepubertal gilts), contact a nutritionist and laboratory for feed analysis. ### 2.4 Feeding Systems and Strategies Feeding systems range from hand feeding to fully automated electronic feeders. The choice affects labor, feed waste, and pig behavior. - **Ad libitum (free access)**: used for nursery and grow finish pigs. Reduces competition but increases feed waste if equipment is poorly adjusted. - **Restricted feeding**: used for gestating sows to control body condition. Requires individual stalls or electronic sow feeders. - **Phase feeding**: multiple diets over the grow finish period to match changing amino acid requirements. Reduces cost and nitrogen excretion. A practical decision path for feeding system selection: - If labor is abundant and cheap, hand feeding with feed carts may be adequate. - If labor is costly or scarce, invest in automated liquid or dry feeding systems. - For sows, electronic sow feeders reduce labor and allow individual feeding but require training and careful management of social hierarchy. Records to keep: - Average daily feed intake per pig per phase - [Feed conversion ratio](/knowledge/animal-farming/poultry/feed-conversion-ratio-measuring-improving-poultry-efficiency) (kg feed per kg gain) - Body weight gains at key points (weaning, end of nursery, end of grow finish) ### 2.5 Records Related to Nutrition Nutrition records help track efficiency, diagnose problems, and plan purchases. Essential records: - Feed delivered per building per day or week - Pen specific feed intake (if possible) - Water to feed ratio (can indicate feed consumption issues) - Growth rates per pen or group - Mycotoxin test results and corrective actions ### 2.6 Uncertainty in Nutrition Feed prices fluctuate with commodity markets. Uncertainty also arises from ingredient quality variations and mycotoxin risks. To manage uncertainty: - Secure feed contracts with price ceilings or floors - Maintain a grain storage buffer (two to four weeks) - Develop alternative ration formulations using different ingredients - Test feed from each new ingredient batch before mixing ### 2.7 Escalation to a Nutritionist Consult a swine nutritionist when: - Feed conversion deteriorates without obvious health cause - Growth rates fall below target despite adequate health - Introducing new feed ingredients or by products - Formulating diets for a new genetic line or production system - Mycotoxin contamination is confirmed and feed treatment is needed A nutritionist can balance diets for cost and performance, interpret laboratory results, and recommend feed additives that support gut health and immunity. --- ## 3. Water Water is the most critical nutrient, yet it is often overlooked. Pigs consume two to three times as much water as feed by weight. Water quality and availability directly affect feed intake, growth, health, and behavior. ### 3.1 Water Quality and Quantity Parameters for water quality include: - **Total dissolved solids (TDS)**: above 1000 ppm may reduce intake - **Sulfate**: high levels cause diarrhea in piglets - **Nitrate and nitrite**: can affect oxygen transport and growth - **Bacterial contamination**: coliforms, E. coli indicate fecal contamination - **pH**: ideal range 6.5 to 7.5 The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) provides tables of acceptable water quality limits for swine. Water quantity: growing pigs need about 1 liter of water per 10 kg body weight per day, more in hot weather. Sows in lactation may need 15 to 25 liters per day. Nipple drinkers should deliver 0.5 to 1 liter per minute (depending on pig size) to allow adequate intake without excessive waste. ### 3.2 Water Delivery Systems Common delivery systems: - **Nipple drinkers**: widely used in nursery and grow finish. Require adjustment of height and flow rate. Bowl drinkers reduce waste but must be cleaned. - **Cup drinkers**: allow pigs to see water, reduce spillage, useful for weaned piglets. - **Automatic waterers**: used with liquid feeding systems, require regular calibration. Placement: ensure at least one drinker per 10 pigs in nursery and 15 pigs in grow finish. Provide extra drinkers where pigs are newly weaned or in hot weather. Records to keep: - Water flow rate measurements per drinker or line (weekly) - Water meter readings per building (daily or weekly) - Water quality test results (annually or if problems arise) - Water consumption per pen (useful for detecting illness) ### 3.3 Daily Water Monitoring Daily checks include: - Verify drinker function: no leaks or blockages - Observe pig behavior: are pigs drinking? Are any isolates showing thirst? - Check water meter readings for unusual consumption (sudden drop may indicate disease, sudden increase may indicate leak or heat stress) A practical decision path: - If water intake drops 10 20 percent below expected with no change in temperature, check for blocked lines or low pressure. Then check for health issues (fever, diarrhea). - If intake increases sharply without heat stress, check for water leaks, feed palatability issues, or early signs of diarrhea. ### 3.4 Uncertainty in Water Supply Uncertainties include drought, well failure, contamination events, and power outages affecting pumps. Mitigations: - Maintain at least a one day water storage in tanks - Have a backup power generator for well pumps - Keep a test kit for basic water quality (TDS, pH, bacteria) - Establish a relationship with a local water lab for emergency testing ### 3.5 Escalation to a Laboratory or Engineer Contact a water testing laboratory when: - Water quality is suspect (bad taste, discoloration, pig health problems) - Annual water test reveals high levels of contaminants - A disease outbreak suggests waterborne transmission (e.g., E. coli, Salmonella) Contact an engineer when: - Water flow is inadequate despite pump operation - New well or water treatment system is needed - Pipe or drinker design must be modified for new barns --- ## 4. Facilities and Housing Facilities provide shelter, comfort, and containment. They must support health, biosecurity, worker safety, and food safety. Design depends on climate, production system, and budget. ### 4.1 Barn Types and Ventilation Barn types: - **Completely enclosed, mechanically ventilated**: provides the most control over temperature and air quality. Typical in temperate and cold regions. Fan systems with inlets and exhaust. - **Naturally ventilated (curtain sided)**: used in mild climates. Curtains open for fresh air, close in cold weather. Less precise but lower energy cost. - **Outdoor or pasture based**: used in small scale or organic systems. Higher biosecurity risk, requires land rotation. Ventilation is critical for ammonia control, temperature, and humidity. The [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) list air quality parameters important for animal health. In mechanically ventilated barns, minimum ventilation rates should be maintained even in cold weather to remove moisture and gases. Records to keep: - Ventilation settings per season and barn zone - Daily temperature and humidity readings - Air quality measurements (ammonia, carbon dioxide) periodically - Equipment maintenance logs (fans, heaters, controllers) ### 4.2 Temperature Control and Flooring Pigs are sensitive to temperature, especially piglets. Thermal comfort zones: - **Piglets (newborn)**: 32 35 C for first week - **Weaned pigs**: 26 30 C - **Grow finish**: 16 22 C - **Sows (lactation)**: 18 22 C Flooring affects comfort and injury risk. Slatted floors (concrete or plastic) allow manure removal but can cause foot lesions if slats are too wide or rough. Solid floors with bedding provide better comfort but require more labor for cleaning. Records to keep: - Barn temperature (minimum, maximum, average) daily - Pig behavior and postures (piling or panting indicate thermal stress) - Floor condition inspections (rough edges, broken slats) ### 4.3 Waste Management Manure management must comply with environmental regulations. Systems include: - **Deep pit storage** under slatted floors, pumped to lagoon or land application - **Flush or scrape systems** that move manure to an outdoor lagoon - **Composting** of solid manure from bedded systems The [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) provides guidance on manure storage and application rates to minimize nutrient runoff and odor. Keep records of manure volume, nutrient content (if tested), and land application dates and rates. ### 4.4 Worker Safety in Facilities Worker safety is a legal and ethical obligation. Common hazards in pig barns: - **Hazardous gases**: hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, methane, carbon dioxide. Especially during manure agitation or pit pumping. Enter confined spaces only with proper ventilation and gas detection. - **Slip and fall risks**: wet floors, manure buildup. - **Animal injury**: sows can crush workers, boars are dangerous. Use proper handling tools and avoid direct contact. - **Zoonotic diseases**: Leptospira, Salmonella, Swine influenza. Use personal protective equipment (PPE) and wash hands. Provide training on gas detection, safe handling, and first aid. Equip barns with emergency exits, eye wash stations, and personal protective equipment. The [USDA APHIS](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) has resources on worker safety related to zoonoses. ### 4.5 Escalation to an Engineer Contact an agricultural engineer when: - Designing new barns or retrofitting existing ones - Ventilation system fails to maintain air quality or temperature - Manure handling equipment needs major repair or replacement - Structural integrity is questioned (e.g., after snow load, earthquake) - Worker safety issues related to building layout or equipment --- ## 5. Daily Management Daily management translates planning into action. Consistent routines improve pig welfare, reduce stress, and prevent problems. ### 5.1 Routine Health and Welfare Checks Each day, observe pigs for signs of illness, injury, or distress. Welfare indicators include: - Body condition (too thin or too fat) - Gait and lameness - Skin condition (sores, lesions, swellings) - Respiratory signs (coughing, sneezing, labored breathing) - Behavior (lethargy, isolation, abnormal aggression) Use a scoring system (0 3) for body condition, lameness, and other signs. Record findings per pen or individual pig (especially sows). The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) describes clinical signs of common diseases. A decision path for health checks: - If more than 2 percent of pigs in a pen show signs of illness, investigate further. - If one pig is isolated and not eating, move it to a hospital pen and treat according to veterinary protocol. - If mortality exceeds an established baseline (e.g., 5 percent in nursery, 2 percent in grow finish), consult a veterinarian. Records to keep: - Daily mortality count with cause (if known) - Pen level health observations - Hospital pen admissions and treatments - Necropsy results (if performed) ### 5.2 Feeding and Watering Verification Verify that feed is present in all feeders and that water drinkers are functional. Check: - Feed bridging or blockages in feeder tubes - Feed freshness (no mold, strong smell) - Water flow from each drinker (visual check or flow meter) - No contamination of water lines (sediment, algae) If feed intake drops, rule out water problems first, then feed quality, then health. ### 5.3 Cleaning and Disinfection All in all out management requires thorough cleaning between groups. Steps: 1. Remove all pigs. 2. Remove and dispose of manure and bedding. 3. Pre soak with water and detergent. 4. Wash with high pressure spray. 5. Disinfect with approved disinfectant. 6. Dry completely before new pigs arrive. Between groups of continuous flow barns, clean frequently contaminated areas (feeders, drinkers, alleyways) weekly. The [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) provide disinfection protocols for different pathogens. ### 5.4 Food Safety Considerations Food safety starts on the farm. Residues from medications, heavy metals, or mycotoxins can enter the food chain. Follow these principles: - Maintain accurate treatment records including withdrawal times. - Do not market pigs that have been treated with a drug before withdrawal time expires. - Dispose of contaminated feed or treated animals according to regulations. - Keep feed and water free from pathogens that cause human illness (Salmonella, Campylobacter, Trichinella). The [USDA APHIS](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) offers guidance on food safety in swine production. Consult a regulator if you have questions about residue testing or compliance. ### 5.5 Worker Safety Protocols Daily worker safety actions: - Wear clean boots and coveralls in pig areas. - Use ear protection near fans or in noisy areas. - Handle pigs calmly using boards or panels, not electric prods. - Report any injuries, especially from pigs or equipment. - Wash hands after handling pigs and before eating or leaving farm. Provide written safety protocols and train all ## Farrowing and Nursery Management ### 2.1 Farrowing Facilities and Preparation Farrowing is the most intensive phase in pig production. The facility must protect piglets from crushing while allowing sow movement for feeding, drinking, and elimination. Two common configurations exist: fully slatted crates and free farrowing pens. Crates reduce piglet mortality from crushing but restrict sow movement, which may affect welfare. Free farrowing pens allow the sow to turn around but require more space and careful design to achieve comparable survival rates. **Key facility considerations:** | Factor | Crates | Free Farrowing Pens | |--------|--------|---------------------| | Sow space | 2.1,2.4 m² | 4.5,6.0 m² | | Piglet creep area | Heated zone beside crate | Heated corner or box | | Mortality risk | Lower crushing, higher stillbirths if poorly managed | Higher crushing without proper sloped walls or rails | | Worker access | Easy for piglet processing | More walking and bending | Prepare the farrowing room 3,5 days before the sow’s expected farrowing date. Clean and disinfect thoroughly following [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) for disinfection protocols. Repair any damaged flooring or edges that could injure piglets. Check heat lamps or mats in the creep area and ensure they maintain a surface temperature of 34,37°C during the first 72 hours. Lower the room ambient temperature to 18,20°C for sow comfort while the creep remains warmer. **Common failure pattern:** Inadequate pre farrowing drying time. If the floor is still wet when sows enter, humidity rises and piglets chill. Allow at least 48 hours for complete drying after disinfection. ### 2.2 Farrowing Process and Piglet Care Sows typically farrow within 3,6 hours after the first piglet. Signs include restlessness, nesting behavior, and milk letdown. Intervene only when progress stalls. A prolonged farrowing interval (greater than 45 minutes between piglets) warrants observation. Remove placental membranes from piglets’ mouths and noses immediately after birth. Dry vigorous piglets with a clean cloth or paper, then place them at the udder. Stow weak piglets in a warm box until the sow finishes farrowing, then assist with colostrum intake. **Piglet processing tasks (within 12,24 hours of birth):** - Clip needle teeth to prevent facial lacerations on the sow’s udder and other piglets. - Apply a gentler disinfectant to the navel stump to reduce umbilical infection. - Inject iron dextran (200 mg per piglet) to prevent anaemia. - Ear tag or notch for identification if recording individual data. - Castrate male piglets (if performed on farm) using a clean technique and pain relief as required by local regulations. Consult the [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) for recommended analgesic protocols. **Records to keep for each farrowing group:** - Sow identification and parity number. - Date of farrowing and total born (alive, stillborn, mummified). - Number of piglets weaned and weaning weight. - Farrowing duration and assistance required. - Piglet deaths within 24 hours with cause (crushing, starvation, splay leg, etc.). Recording these data allows detection of patterns such as increasing stillbirth rate in older sows or high crushing losses in certain crates. ### 2.3 Colostrum Management Colostrum is the single most important determinant of piglet survival. It provides immunoglobulins that passively protect pigs until their own immune system matures. Piglets are born with essentially no antibodies. They must absorb colostrum within the first 6,12 hours after birth, gut closure generally occurs by 24 hours. **Practical colostrum protocol:** - Ensure every piglet consumes at least 200 g of colostrum in the first 6 hours. - Observe each piglet’s belly after the first nursing to confirm milk intake. - For weak or slow piglets, manually express colostrum from the sow’s teats and feed it via a syringe or stomach tube (2,3 mL per kg body weight). - Bank colostrum from healthy multiparous sows by collecting and refrigerating the excess. Use it within 48 hours or freeze for up to 6 months. Thaw at room temperature, never in a microwave. **Decision path for low colostrum intake:** 1. Check room temperature , piglets should not shiver or huddle away from the udder. 2. Check sow health , fever, mastitis, or lameness reduce milk letdown. 3. Assess piglet vigour , weak piglets may not compete. 4. Implement split nursing: remove strong piglets for 30,45 minutes to allow weak ones to nurse undisturbed. 5. If still inadequate, supply artificial colostrum replacer or tube feed banked colostrum. **Escalate to the veterinarian if** more than 15% of piglets in a group show signs of colostrum deprivation (hypoglycaemia, scours, early death) to rule out underlying infectious disease or sow health problems. ### 2.4 Cross Fostering and Sow Nutrition Cross fostering equalises litter sizes and piglet weights within a farrowing group. Do it within 24 hours of birth and before piglets imprint on the sow’s teats. Move the largest piglets from large litters to smaller litters, or move piglets between sows with similar parity and teat size. Avoid moving piglets from a sow with known health problems such as mastitis or metritis. **Cross fostering guidelines:** - Foster only after piglets have consumed colostrum from their own dam. - Move no more than two piglets per litter to avoid confusing the sow. - For very large litters (greater than 14 piglets), consider using a nurse sow , a sow that weaned her own litter early and is still lactating. - Do not foster across groups or rooms unless the disease status is identical. **Sow nutrition during lactation** directly affects milk production and piglet growth. Feed a high energy, high protein lactation diet (crude protein 16,18%, lysine 0.9,1.0% on an as fed basis). Increase feed intake gradually after farrowing from 2,3 kg on day one to ad libitum by day 7. Fresh drinking water is critical: a lactating sow may drink 15,30 litres per day. Check water flow rates at the drinker, a minimum of 1.5 litres per minute is recommended. **Common failure patterns in lactation feeding:** - Sudden drop in feed intake on days 3,5 , may indicate constipation, fever, or early mastitis. - Sows that eat less than 4 kg per day by day 7 will lose body condition rapidly and have reduced milk output. - Overconditioned sows (backfat > 22 mm at farrowing) often eat less in lactation. Record daily feed intake for each sow or at least a sample of parity groups. If group average intake is below recommended levels, review feed formulation, temperature, and water supply. ### 2.5 Nursery Stage: [Weaning Transition](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/weaning-transition-feed-and-water-management) Weaning is the most stressful event in a pig’s life. Piglets are separated from the sow, mixed with unfamiliar pigs, moved to a new environment, and switched from liquid milk to solid feed. The nursery phase covers the period from weaning (typically 3,4 weeks of age) to approximately 10 weeks of age (25,30 kg body weight). Proper management during this transition sets the stage for grow finish performance. **Weaning age and weight targets:** | Parameter | Target Range | |-----------|--------------| | Weaning age | 21,28 days | | Minimum weaning weight | 5.5 kg for 21 day weaning, 6.5 kg for 28 day | | Weight range within group | less than 1.5 kg variation | | Mortality in first week post weaning | less than 2% | Piglets with low weaning weight (below 5.0 kg at 21 days) have higher mortality and poorer growth throughout life. Sort pigs by weight at weaning and group them into weight classes. Do not mix lightweight piglets with heavier ones, they will compete poorly for feed and space. **Nursery facility preparation:** - Clean, disinfect, and dry completely before each new group. - Provide at least one feeder space per 4,5 pigs for wet dry feeders, or one per 6,8 pigs for dry feeders. - Ensure water flow of 0.5,1.0 litre per minute at nipple drinkers. - Pre heat the nursery room to 28,30°C before pigs arrive. Gradually reduce temperature by 1,2°C per week. - Provide a mat or solid floor area with heat source for the first week to mimic the creep environment. **Decision path for weaning day problems:** 1. Pigs not eating after 6 hours , offer gruel (wet feed) in shallow trays. 2. Pigs huddling , increase room temperature or add extra heat lamp. 3. Pigs shivering with rough hair coats , check air speed at pig level, drafts can chill despite adequate thermostat. 4. Pigs scouring within 48 hours , assess feed intake, water quality, and hygiene. Collect faecal sample for laboratory diagnostics if incidence exceeds 5%. ### 2.6 Nursery Environment and Feeding The nursery environment requires precise control of temperature, humidity, and air quality. Piglets do not have a fully developed thermoregulatory system until about 4 weeks of age. The thermal neutral zone for a 6 kg pig is 26,30°C. Provision of bedding or solid floors reduces conductive heat loss. Slatted floors increase drafts from below, adjust heating accordingly. **Feeding strategy for nursery pigs:** Use a phase feeding program with three or four diets tailored to gut development. | Phase | Age or Weight | Crude Protein | Lysine | Form | |-------|---------------|---------------|--------|------| | Pre starter 1 | Weaning to 7 kg | 20,22% | 1.4,1.5% | High digestibility, includes milk products | | Pre starter 2 | 7,10 kg | 18,20% | 1.2,1.3% | Transition to corn/soybean meal base | | Starter | 10,25 kg | 17,19% | 1.0,1.1% | Pelleted or meal | Include feed additives such as zinc oxide (pharmacological level for short periods) or organic acids to control post weaning diarrhoea. Consult the [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) for survey data on antimicrobial use in nursery diets. Withdraw medicated feeds according to label withdrawal times. **Water quality and consumption:** - Measure water intake daily for each pen. Expect 0.5,1.0 litres per pig per day in the first week, rising to 2,3 litres at 10 weeks. - If water consumption is below expected, check drinker flow rate, water temperature (avoid cold water below 10°C), and if pigs are trained to drink. - Test water for nitrates, total dissolved solids, and bacterial levels if problems persist. **Common failure pattern:** Feed refusal after switching from pre starter to starter phase. This leads to growth check and increased disease. Extend the pre starter feeding period by 3,5 days before transition. Mix diets gradually over 2,3 days. ### 2.7 Health Monitoring and Common Problems Farrowing and nursery pigs are highly susceptible to infectious diseases. Routine health monitoring should include daily observation of appetite, fecal consistency, respiratory effort, and behaviour. Record any abnormal signs and track them by room and age. **Common diseases in farrowing and nursery:** - **Scours (diarrhoea):** Caused by E. coli (pre weaning), Rotavirus, Clostridium perfringens type C, or coccidiosis (post weaning). In the nursery, post weaning E. coli and Salmonella are frequent. - **Respiratory disease:** Circovirus associated disease (PCV2), [Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/mycoplasma-hyopneumoniae-enzootic-pneumonia-pigs), and influenza can emerge in the nursery. - **Streptococcus suis:** Often appears 5,10 days after weaning, causing meningitis, arthritis, and sudden death. - **Greasy pig disease (Staphylococcus hyicus):** More common in nursery pigs with skin abrasions. **Monitoring thresholds:** - Nursery mortality above 3% in any 4 week period warrants investigation. Check with the [USDA APHIS](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) for surveillance data on disease prevalence. - Diarrhoea prevalence exceeding 10% in a room for two consecutive days , collect faecal samples for laboratory analysis. - Coughing index (percentage of pigs coughing in a 2 minute observation) above 5% suggests the need for veterinary assessment. **Vaccination protocols:** Consult the [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) for vaccination schedules. Common nursery vaccines include PCV2, Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, and [Lawsonia intracellularis](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/lawsonia-intracellularis). Timing of vaccination is critical, administer when maternal antibodies wane. Work with your veterinarian to determine the appropriate window based on your farm’s serology. **Escalation to a veterinarian** is appropriate for any of the following: - Mortality more than double the historical baseline for two consecutive weeks. - Or expected single disease causing more than 5% mortality in a group. - Unusual lesions on necropsy (e.g., peritonitis, joint infections, brain signs). - Failure of a treatment protocol to show response within 48 hours. The veterinarian may perform necropsies, submit tissues for histopathology, and run serological or PCR tests to identify the pathogen. ### 2.8 Performance Records and Benchmarks Consistent record keeping allows you to identify trends, evaluate management changes, and compare your farm to regional benchmarks. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) provides swine health and management survey data that can serve as benchmarks for US farms. **Essential farrowing records:** - Litter size (total born, born alive, stillborn, mummified). - Preweaning mortality percentage and causes. - Weaning weight per litter and per piglet. - Farrowing rate (percentage of sows that farrow from those mated in a given period) , but this is more a breeding metric. **Essential nursery records:** - Start date and number of pigs placed. - End date and number of pigs leaving nursery. - Mortality and removals (by cause if known). - Average daily gain (ADG) from weaning to exit nursery. - Feed conversion ratio (FCR) for the nursery period. - Medication and treatment records with reason, drug, dose, route, and withdrawal time. **How to use the records:** - Calculate preweaning mortality: (piglets dead before weaning / total born alive) x 100. Expected range 8,15%. If above 15%, investigate crushing, starvation, and sow health. - Calculate nursery ADG: (exit weight , entry weight) / days in nursery. Target: 350,450 g/day for conventional weaning at 3,4 weeks. - FCR in nursery: total feed consumed / total weight gain. Target: 1.4,1.6 kg feed per kg gain for pigs weaned at 3 weeks. **Uncertainty management:** Records may be incomplete or biased. For example, stillbirths are sometimes misclassified as live births that died shortly after. Train staff to accurately differentiate. Also, weigh consistently , always weigh at the same time of day, before feeding. ### 2.9 Worker Safety and Food Safety in Farrowing and Nursery **Worker safety:** - Wear appropriate protective clothing: rubber boots, coveralls, and gloves when processing piglets. - Needle teeth clipping and tail docking pose risk of needlestick injury or laceration. Use safety guards on clippers. - Lifting heavy loads (e.g., bags of feed, weaned pigs) can cause back injury. Use mechanical aids or team lifting. - Sows can bite or crush. Never place your hand under a sow when she is lying down. Be cautious when walking behind a sow in a crate. - Nursery pigs can cause slips and trips. Keep alleyways dry and free of obstructions. - Use hearing protection in rooms with high background noise from ventilation or pig squealing. **Food safety:** - Maintain treatment records that include drug name, dose, route, date, and withdrawal time for each pig or group. - Ensure that medicated feeds are properly labelled and stored separately from non medicated feed. - Do not slaughter or market pigs that have been treated with any drug before the withdrawal time has elapsed. - Monitor for antimicrobial residues by following any required testing program in your region. Consult the [USDA APHIS](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) for guidance on residue avoidance. - Segregate dead stock promptly to prevent contamination of live pigs. Follow local carcass disposal regulations. **Zoonotic risks:** - **Salmonella** can be carried by pigs and cause human illness. Practice good hygiene. - **Streptococcus suis** can infect humans via cuts or abrasions. Wear gloves when handling pigs with suspected meningitis or arthritis. - **Leptospira** is shed in urine. Avoid direct contact with sow urine during farrowing. ### 2.10 Escalation Pathways When problems exceed the farm’s capacity to solve, involve the appropriate expert. Below are examples of escalation scenarios. | Problem | Escalate to: | Reason | |---------|--------------|--------| | High stillbirth or weak piglets, no clear cause | Veterinarian (diagnostics, nutrition review) | Rule out PRRS, parvovirus, nutritional deficiency | | Post weaning diarrhoea non responsive to treatment | Laboratory (faecal culture, sensitivity) | Identify pathogen and antibiotic resistance | | Poor feed intake in nursery despite correct environment and feed | Nutritionist (feed formulation, ingredient quality) | Check mycotoxin levels, energy density, palatability | | High crushing losses with consistent pattern in same crates | Engineer or extension specialist (crate design) | Modify crate geometry or rail placement | | Suspicion of reportable disease (African swine fever, classical swine fever, foot and mouth disease) | Regulator/Animal health authority immediately | Notify per WOAH terrestrial standards and national requirements | | Water intake low in multiple rooms | Engineer or plumber | Check water system pressure, pipe diameter, drinker type | | Abattoir feedback indicates high downer pigs or lameness from nursery lesions | Veterinarian and nutritionist | Evaluate flooring, stocking density, and calcium/phosporus balance | **Records to keep for escalation:** - A log of each event including date, description, action taken, and outcome. - Photographs of # Section 3: Nursery and Grow-Finish Management: From Weaning to Market ## 3.1 Weaning Age and Transition Strategies Weaning is one of the most stressful events in a pig’s life. The age at weaning typically ranges from 21 to 28 days in conventional systems, though some operations wean later to reduce post weaning challenges. The decision depends on sow facility capacity, nursery availability, and piglet maturity. A later weaning age allows the piglet to have a more developed immune system and digestive enzyme profile, which can lower the risk of diarrhoea and poor growth. [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) guidelines emphasise that weaning should coincide with a piglet’s ability to consume solid feed independently. In practice, this means ensuring piglets have been trained to eat creep feed for at least 10 days before weaning. Creep feed should be highly palatable, contain milk products, and be offered in flat trays or troughs that are cleaned daily. Without adequate creep feed intake, the intestinal villi will atrophy after weaning due to the sudden removal of milk, leading to reduced nutrient absorption and potential malabsorption. **Transition strategies after weaning:** - Maintain the same creep feed for the first 7 days after weaning to reduce aversion. - Provide electrolyte solutions or fresh water with high flow rates in the first 24 hours. - Use gruel feeding (mixture of dry feed and water) for the first 3 days to promote intake. - Keep nursery room temperature at 28,30°C during the first week, then reduce gradually. A common mistake is to reduce temperature too quickly. Cold pigs will not eat. Observation of piglet lying pattern (huddling equals cold, spreading out equals warm) is a practical tool without relying on fixed numbers. [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) notes that drafty conditions and wet floors compound thermal stress. **Records to keep for weaning:** - Date of weaning, age in days, average weaning weight. - Number of piglets per sow weaned (farrowing weaning percentage). - Creep feed intake per pen per day for the first two weeks. ## 3.2 Nursery Environment and Facilities The nursery is an intermediate step between the farrowing crate and the grow finish barn. It must provide a controlled microclimate to support the piglet’s transition. Key factors include ventilation, flooring, space, and hygiene. ### Flooring Flooring in nursery pens should offer good traction and be easy to clean. Plastic slats are common because they are less abrasive and reduce knee lesions compared to concrete. Partially slatted floors with a solid warm area can improve comfort. The gap width must be suitable for small hooves to prevent injury. [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) resources highlight the importance of preventing lameness in nursery pigs, as early leg problems can affect lifetime performance. Rough or worn flooring should be replaced or repaired between groups. ### Ventilation A mechanical ventilation system that provides fresh air without draughts is essential. Carbon dioxide levels should be monitored, high levels indicate poor ventilation and can cause respiratory problems. Ammonia from urine and faeces irritates the respiratory tract and predisposes pigs to pneumonia. [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) include recommendations for environmental enrichment and air quality to maintain animal health. ### Space allowance Nursery pigs require enough space to access feed and water without competition. Overstocking leads to increased stress, aggression, and uneven growth. A practical decision path for space: if you see more than 20% of pigs standing at the feeder during non feeding times, the feeder space may be insufficient. Similarly, if water consumption is erratic, check drinker flow rates and number of drinkers per pen. **Decision path for nursery environment issues:** | Observation | Possible cause | Action | |-------------|----------------|--------| | Pigs huddled, shivering | Cold draft, low temperature | Check sensors, increase heating, reduce ventilation rate | | Pigs lying in wet areas | Floor drainage poor or drinker leak | Repair drinkers, improve slope | | Pigs rubbing against walls | Skin irritation or parasites | Check for lice, mange, consult veterinarian | | Capped knees or swollen joints | Floor abrasion or infection | Review flooring, treat injuries, improve hygiene | ## 3.3 Feeding Programs for Nursery Pigs Nursery feeding has three sub phases: phase 1 (first week post weaning), phase 2 (weeks 2,3), and phase 3 (weeks 4 onwards until moving to grow finish). The goal is to maximise feed intake gradually while maintaining gut health. - Phase 1 feed should be highly digestible with high levels of milk protein, lactose, and simple carbohydrates. It is often pelleted or crumbled. - Phase 2 includes more plant proteins like soybean meal. Zinc oxide (pharmacological levels) has been used historically to control diarrhoea, but regulatory restrictions in many countries are phasing it out due to environmental concerns. [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) provides guidance on alternatives such as organic acids, probiotics, and careful ingredient selection. - Phase 3 is a step down in nutrient density, preparing the pig for the grow finish diet. Feed form matters. Pellets reduce waste and improve growth rate compared to meal feed, but they must be of good quality to avoid dust. A nutritionist should design the nursery rations based on the farm’s specific ingredient availability and pig genetics. **Records to keep:** - Daily feed consumption per pen (weigh feed added and refused). - Mortality and culling rate during nursery. - Average daily gain (ADG) per phase. - Water to feed ratio monitoring. Uncertainty exists in predicting exactly when a pig will be ready for the next phase. The decision considers body weight alongside age. A typical body weight range for transitioning from phase 1 to phase 2 is around 7 to 8 kg, but individual variation is large. Always weigh a sample of pigs to guide the change. ## 3.4 Health Monitoring in Nursery Close observation of nursery pigs is critical. The first week after weaning is when many diseases manifest: post weaning diarrhoea, oedema disease, and respiratory infections. Pigs should be checked at least twice daily. Signs to record: - Lethargy, arched backs, gaunt flanks. - Diarrhoea colour and consistency. - Coughing or thumping. - Sudden death. - Skin lesions from fighting or tail biting. [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) conducts periodic surveys on swine health, and their findings indicate that respiratory diseases remain a leading cause of nursery mortality. Taking lung scores at slaughter or necropsy can help track subclinical pneumonia. When a problem is detected, isolate affected pigs to a hospital pen. The hospital pen should have heat, easy access to feed and water, and be in a separate room or airspace to reduce pathogen spread. A veterinarian should be consulted if mortality exceeds a farm’s baseline or if unusual signs appear. **Escalation to laboratory:** - Faecal samples for bacterial culture and sensitivity in cases of non responsive diarrhoea. - Lung or tonsil swabs for PCR testing for PRRS, influenza, or PCV2. - Blood sampling for serology to monitor vaccine response. Welfare concern: pigs that do not respond to treatment within 48 hours should be euthanised humanely. Unnecessary suffering must be avoided. [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) provide guidelines on humane euthanasia methods. ## 3.5 Grow-Finish Phase: Housing and Stocking Density After nursery (typically 9 to 10 weeks of age, weighing around 25,30 kg), pigs move to grow-finish barns where they remain until market weight. This phase lasts 14 to 18 weeks depending on genetics and target weight. ### Housing types - Fully slatted floor with deep pit manure storage is common in large operations. - Partially slatted with straw bedding systems are used in alternative systems. Straw reduces respiratory problems but increases labour and dust. - Outdoor or housed in hoop barns with deep bedded kennels are options for small scale farms. [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) provides extensive comparisons of housing systems regarding welfare and environment. ### Stocking density Overcrowding leads to increased aggression, tail biting, reduced growth rate, and more leg problems. The exact floor space needed per pig depends on body weight and behaviour. For fully slatted floors, a general guideline is to provide enough space that all pigs can lie down simultaneously without stacking. This typically translates to about 0.40 m² per pig at 30 kg up to 1.0 m² per pig at 120 kg. These are not fixed rules but observations to adjust. If tail biting becomes a problem, environmental enrichment (toys, straw, ropes) should be provided. The source of enrichment must be clean and replaced regularly. [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) resources note that tail biting is a multifactorial problem, reducing stocking density and improving ventilation often help. ## 3.6 Nutrition for Grow-Finish Pigs Grow-finish nutrition aims to achieve the target market weight efficiently while maintaining carcass quality. Pigs are usually fed two to three diets: grower (25,50 kg), finisher 1 (50,80 kg), and finisher 2 (80 kg to slaughter). The nutrient density decreases as pigs age. Key nutrients: - Energy from grains (corn, wheat, barley). - Protein from soybean meal or other meals. - Amino acids (lysine, methionine, threonine) for lean tissue growth. - Minerals and vitamins for bone health and immune function. A nutritionist should formulate diets based on the farm’s feed ingredient analysis and the genetic potential of the pigs. Feed efficiency (feed conversion ratio, FCR) is a key metric, typical FCR in grow finish ranges from 2.6 to 3.0. Lower FCR indicates better efficiency. **Records for grow-finish nutrition:** - Feed deliveries and usage per batch. - Average daily gain (ADG) and FCR. - Carcass weight and backfat at slaughter (feedback from abattoir). Uncertainty arises when feed ingredients vary in quality. Mycotoxin contamination (especially deoxynivalenol from Fusarium) can reduce feed intake and cause vomiting. Testing feed for mycotoxins at harvest and before feeding is recommended. If intake suddenly drops, check feed quality first. ## 3.7 Growth Performance Tracking and Culling Decisions Regular weighing of pigs (e.g., at movement from nursery, mid grow, and at market) provides data to evaluate performance. The average daily gain should be consistent across pens, wide variation indicates management or health problems. Culling decisions: - Pigs that fall behind the group by more than 30% of the average body weight after two weeks in a grow-finish pen are unlikely to catch up. They should be moved to a hospital pen or culled if they show signs of chronic disease. The decision must consider welfare and economics. Keeping very slow growing pigs increases feed costs and may compromise biosecurity. A decision path for handling runts: 1. Check weight and clinical status. 2. If healthy but small, provide supplemental feeding in a separate pen for one more week. 3. If still not gaining, consult a veterinarian to rule out chronic disease like porcine circovirus or mycoplasma. 4. Euthanise if poor prognosis. ## 3.8 Worker Safety and Welfare Considerations Worker safety in nursery and grow-finish barns involves: - Good animal handling practices to avoid injury. Pigs can bite, kick, or crush. Training on low stress handling reduces accidents. - Proper use of sorting boards and paddles (avoid electric prods). - Safe use of equipment: feed augers, ventilation systems, power washers. - Hearing protection near noisy equipment. - Ventilation safety: employees should not be alone in manure pits, gas monitors for hydrogen sulfide and methane are essential. [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) provides guidance on confined space safety. Welfare considerations for pigs: - Provide enrichment as required by many national standards. - Avoid tail docking? if performed, it should be done with appropriate analgesia and only as a last resort. - Provide clean, dry bedding and enough space for normal behaviour. If a pig is severely lame or injured, immediate veterinary attention or euthanasia is needed. The American Association of Swine Veterinarians has published welfare guidelines. ## 3.9 Food Safety Residue Avoidance Withdrawal times for all medications must be strictly observed. The producer is responsible for ensuring that no residues of antibiotics, growth promoters (where still allowed), or other substances remain in the carcass at slaughter. [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) include guidelines for veterinary antimicrobial resistance. Using antibiotics only under veterinary prescription is crucial. Key practices: - Maintain a treatment log for each pig or group: animal identification (ear tag or tattoo), date treated, product, dose, route, and withdrawal time. - Use separate feed bins for medicated and non medicated feeds to prevent cross contamination. - When marketing pigs, ensure that the last treated pig meets the withdrawal period before sale. - Record the slaughter date and compare to treatment records. Food safety also includes Salmonella control. Pigs can carry Salmonella asymptomatically. Good biosecurity, cleaning of transport vehicles, and reducing stress before transport help reduce shedding. [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) has resources on on farm food safety. ## 3.10 Escalation Pathways for Nursery and Grow-Finish When problems exceed routine management, involve the correct expert. | Problem | Escalate to | Reason | |---------|-------------|--------| | High mortality in first week nursery | Veterinarian and laboratory | Rule out colibacillosis, rotavirus, PRRS | | Persistent coughing in grow-finish without response to treatment | Veterinarian (bronchoscopy, serology) | Possibly Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae or PRRS | | Feed intake below target for a week with no visible disease | Nutritionist | Check feed formulation, ingredient quality, mycotoxins | | High incidence of tail biting | Extension specialist or behaviourist | Environmental enrichment, stocking density, ventilation | | Sudden lameness in many pigs in one pen | Engineer or veterinarian | Floor condition, joint infection, feed imbalance | | Recurrent cases of eperythrozoonosis or anaemia | Veterinarian and nutritionist | Iron status, blood testing, feed minerals | | Abnormal odour from manure pit | Engineer or safety expert | Ventilation, pit gas monitoring, agitation risks | | Slaughterhouse feedback on high liver abscesses or pleuritis | Veterinarian | Management changes, feed hygiene, vaccination | **Records to keep for escalation in nursery and grow-finish:** - Daily mortality and culling with cause if known. - Feed consumption by pen per batch. - Water consumption logs. - Environmental data (temperature, humidity, ammonia) at least twice weekly. - Treatment records. - Photographs of any abnormality (legs, lungs, tail lesions) with date and pen. ## 3.11 Records to Keep Specifically for Nursery and Grow-Finish Systematic record keeping enables data driven decisions and traceability. At minimum: | Record | Frequency | Purpose | |--------|-----------|---------| | Batch inventory | Weekly | Count pigs moved in, moved out, dead, culled | | Weights (average per pen) | At transition and at market | Monitor growth rate, uniformity | | Feed delivery and usage | Per batch | FCR calculation | | Water meter readings | Daily | Early detection of health problems (drop in intake) | | Medication log | Every treatment | Withdrawal compliance, antibiotic use monitoring | | Environmental log | Morning and afternoon | Ventilation adjustments | | Slaughter feedback | Each batch | Carcass quality, diseases | ## 3.12 Uncertainty and Emerging Issues Several areas of uncertainty affect nursery and grow-finish management: - Antimicrobial resistance (AMR). The reduction of antibiotics in pig farming requires alternative strategies. The effectiveness of probiotics, prebiotics, and organic acids varies. [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) provide a framework for AMR surveillance. - Climate change impacts heat stress on grow-finish pigs. Prolonged high temperatures reduce feed intake and growth. Evaporative cooling and increasing ventilation capacity are options, but costs must be weighed. - Alternative proteins and feed ingredients: inflation and supply chain disruptions force producers to seek substitutes. A nutritionist should evaluate each new ingredient for digestibility, amino acid profile, and anti nutritional factors. - [Precision livestock farming technologies](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/precision-livestock-farming-technologies-a-decision-framework-for-adoption) (e.g., cameras to monitor body condition, automated feed intake recording) are emerging but require investment and data interpretation skills. - Tail biting outbreaks remain unpredictable despite enrichment. Research is ongoing. ## 3.13 Frequently Asked Questions **1. What is the optimal weaning age for piglets?** Weaning age depends on management capability and health status. 21 days is common, but weaning at 25,28 days improves survival and growth. Consult with a veterinarian to determine the best age for your farm. [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) suggests that later weaning reduces post weaning stress. **2. How much space does a grow-finish pig need?** Space needs increase with weight. A general observation is that pigs should be able to lie down in full lateral recumbency without overlapping. Overcrowding reduces growth and increases aggression. Typical floor space ranges from 0.40 m² to 1.0 m² per pig as weight increases. **3. What should I do if nursery pigs are not eating after weaning?** First, check water availability and flow rate. Then ensure the environment is warm and draught free. Provide the same creep feed as before weaning. If no improvement within 24 hours, offer a gruel of feed and water. Escalate to a veterinarian if the problem persists. **4. How can I reduce tail biting in grow-finish barns?** Provide environmental enrichment such as straw, hanging objects, or edible toys. Reduce stocking density, improve ventilation, and ensure adequate feeder space. Check for health triggers like respiratory disease. Remove biters early. Consult an extension specialist for tailored advice. **5. What withdrawal time is necessary for antibiotics?** Every medication has a specific withdrawal period printed on the label. Keep accurate treatment records. The withdrawal time starts from the last treatment. The tolerance differs by country and drug class. Use [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) as a reference for harmonisation. **6. When should I call a veterinarian for nursery pigs?** Call a veterinarian if mortality exceeds 2% in a week, if diarrhoea is severe or bloody, if pigs show neurological signs, or if there is a sudden drop in feed intake. Also involve a veterinarian when you suspect a reportable disease. **7. How do I know if my feed is contaminated with mycotoxins?** Look for reduced feed intake, vomiting, or poor growth. Laboratory testing of feed samples is the only definitive method. Send samples to a certified laboratory. Use [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) resources for mycotoxin prevention. **8. What factors affect feed conversion ratio (FCR)?** FCR is influenced by genetics, feed quality, health status, environment, and management. High FCR indicates inefficiency. Work with a nutritionist to optimise energy and amino acid levels. Reduce chronic disease and stress to improve FCR. ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Pig Enrichment Programs and Behavior Monitoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/pig-enrichment-programs-and-behavior-monitoring) * [Swine Handling Facility Design for Safe Pig Movement](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/swine-handling-facility-design-safe-pig-movement) * [Swine Feeding Management for Grow-Finish Pigs](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/swine-feeding-management-for-grow-finish-pigs) ## References - [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) - [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) - [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) - [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) - [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) ## Related Farming Links - /knowledge/animal-farming/pig-farming-breeding-farrowing - /knowledge/animal-farming/pig-nutrition-guide - /knowledge/animal-farming/biosecurity-swine-operations - /knowledge/animal-farming/nursery-pig-management - /knowledge/animal-farming/grow-finish-pig-welfare ## Educational Notice This information is provided for educational purposes only. It does not constitute diagnosis, treatment, or veterinary advice. Producers should consult their own veterinarians, nutritionists, and regulatory authorities for farm specific recommendations. The author and publisher assume no liability for actions taken based on this content. Always comply with local laws and standards. ## Section 4: Health and Biosecurity Management in Swine Operations With nutrition optimized, the next critical pillar is health and biosecurity. Protecting pig health requires consistent observation, proactive biosecurity measures, rapid diagnostic response, and clear escalation protocols. This section describes how to integrate health monitoring, biosecurity, veterinary collaboration, emergency planning, food safety, worker protection, and sustainability into a cohesive management system. Guidance draws on [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/), [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease), [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/), and [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/). ### Daily Health Observation Systematic health observation is the foundation of early disease detection. Pigs are prey animals and mask signs of illness until disease is advanced. Regular, purposeful observation at least once daily is essential. More frequent checks are warranted during high stress periods such as weaning, mixing, and weather extremes. **What to look for** Observe pigs at rest and when active. Record any deviation from normal. Key indicators include: - Behavior. Lethargy, isolation from pen mates, reluctance to stand, or depression. - Respiration. Coughing, sneezing, labored breathing, or nasal discharge. - Appetite. Reduced feed intake or water consumption. Check feeder and drinker function. - Body condition. Weight loss, rough hair coat, or sunken flanks. - Locomotion. Lameness, swollen joints, or difficulty rising. - Skin and mucous membranes. Pale or reddened skin, cyanosis, abscesses, or lesions. - Feces and urine. Diarrhea, constipation, blood, or unusual odor. - Temperature. Fever is a key sign. Rectal temperature is measured only when pigs are restrained, normal range is 38.6 to 39.5 degrees C. Use the [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) for detailed descriptions of clinical signs associated with major swine diseases. **Records to keep** Maintain a daily health log. Record: - Date and time. - Number of pigs affected and pen or barn ID. - Clinical signs observed. - Treatments administered, dose, route, and withdrawal date. - Environmental conditions (temperature, ventilation, stocking density). - Any mortality, including cause if known. Group level records allow early detection of trends. An increase in respiratory signs in a grow finish barn over three days warrants investigation. Individual records are critical for breeding stock and sick pigs requiring separate attention. **Uncertainty in observation** Not all signs are specific. Coughing may indicate mycoplasma, influenza, or environmental irritation. Diarrhea can be nutritional, bacterial, or viral. When signs are ambiguous, escalate to a veterinarian. Do not treat based on guess alone. Overuse of antimicrobials contributes to resistance and may mask underlying biosecurity gaps. ### Biosecurity Principles Biosecurity is the set of practices that prevent introduction and spread of pathogens onto and within a farm. It is the most cost effective disease prevention tool. Biosecurity is divided into external (preventing entry) and internal (limiting spread inside). **External biosecurity** The goal is to prevent pathogens from entering the farm. Key measures: - Location. Isolate the farm from other swine operations, slaughterhouses, and roads. Use [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) resources for regional disease risk assessments. - Perimeter. Secure fencing, locked gates, and clear signage. Establish a perimeter buffer zone. - Quarantine. New incoming pigs must be isolated for at least 30 days. Separate facilities, equipment, and personnel. Test for key diseases before introduction. - Visitor and vehicle protocols. Limit access to essential personnel. Require change of boots and coveralls. Disinfect vehicle tires and undercarriage. Maintain a log of all entries. - Feed and supply biosecurity. Store feed in rodent proof bins. Use heat treated feed ingredients when possible. Inspect deliveries for pests and damage. - Wildlife and pest control. Birds, rodents, and feral swine carry pathogens. Implement a comprehensive pest management program. **Internal biosecurity** Even after entry, pathogens can move between groups. Internal biosecurity aims to contain spread. - All in/all out production. Empty a barn or room completely before cleaning and restocking. Avoid continuous flow. - Cleaning and disinfection. Remove organic matter thoroughly. Use appropriate detergents and disinfectants. Follow label instructions for contact time and temperature. Use [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) for disinfection protocols. - Personnel movement. Move from youngest to oldest groups, and from healthy to sick areas. Do not return to healthy pigs after handling sick ones without changing clothing and washing. - Equipment. Dedicate equipment to each barn or room. Disinfect shared tools. - Mortality management. Remove dead pigs promptly. Use rendering, incineration, composting, or burial per local regulations. Carcasses are a biosecurity hazard. **Table: Biosecurity Risk Levels for Common Practices** | Practice | Low Risk | Moderate Risk | High Risk | |----------|----------|---------------|-----------| | Visitor entry | Essential personnel only, after showering | Approved visitors with protective clothing | Unauthorized visitors entering without protocols | | Pig movement | All in/all out with downtime | All in/all out without downtime | Continuous flow | | Feed sourcing | Heat treated, from low disease area | Non treated from same region | Raw or from high disease region | | Wildlife control | Perimeter fencing and regular trapping | Limited fencing | No control | | Quarantine | 30+ day isolation with testing | Isolation without testing | No quarantine | | Equipment sharing | Dedicated per room | Shared but disinfected | Shared without cleaning | **Records to keep for biosecurity** - Visitor and vehicle log. Name, date, reason for visit, and biosecurity compliance. - Quarantine records. Source of pigs, test results, clinical signs, and release date. - Cleaning and disinfection schedule. Date, area, product used, concentration, and contact time. - Pest control. Monitoring points, bait placements, and capture counts. **Uncertainty in biosecurity** Biosecurity is never absolute. Even with rigorous protocols, a pathogen may enter via aerosol, contaminated dust, or asymptomatic carrier. Regular review of biosecurity practices with a veterinarian or extension specialist is recommended. Use [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) data to benchmark your practices against national averages. ### Diagnostic and Veterinary Escalation Timely veterinary intervention reduces morbidity, mortality, and economic loss. Establish a relationship with a swine veterinarian before a problem arises. Define protocols for when to call. **When to escalate** Contact a veterinarian when: - Mortality exceeds baseline. Baseline is farm specific. A sudden increase of any amount warrants investigation. - Signs of a potentially serious disease appear. Examples include acute respiratory distress, neurological signs, hemorrhagic diarrhea, or multiple sudden deaths. - A disease is suspected that is reportable to authorities. Reportable diseases vary by jurisdiction. Examples include African swine fever, classical swine fever, foot and mouth disease, and pseudorabies. Contact state or federal animal health officials immediately. - Routine treatments are not effective. Antibiotic failure may indicate resistance or incorrect diagnosis. - Herd level production metrics decline. Poor growth, high FCR, or low farrowing rates may have underlying health causes. **Sample collection and submission** Proper samples increase diagnostic accuracy. Work with the veterinarian to select samples based on clinical signs. - Live pigs. Serum for antibody testing, whole blood for PCR, nasal swabs, fecal samples, and oropharyngeal swabs. - Dead pigs. Perform necropsy on fresh carcasses (less than 6 hours postmortem in warm weather, 12 hours in cool). Collect tissues: lung, liver, spleen, kidney, lymph nodes, tonsil, brain if neurological. - Feed and environment. Feed samples for mycotoxin testing, water samples for bacteria or pH. Label samples clearly with farm ID, date, tissue type, and clinical history. Ship on ice for bacteriology or via overnight carrier to a certified diagnostic laboratory. Use [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) guidelines for submission of reportable disease samples. **Necropsy decision path** - Is the carcass fresh? Yes: proceed to necropsy. No: do not use for bacterial culture, may still test for viruses using PCR. - Are multiple pigs affected? Yes: necropsy at least two pigs from different pens. No: necropsy the affected pig. - What are the primary signs? If respiratory, collect lung and nasal swabs. If enteric, collect ileum and colon contents. If systemic, collect spleen and lymph nodes. Document findings with photos. Share with veterinarian. **Role of the laboratory** Laboratories provide confirmation of clinical diagnoses, antimicrobial sensitivity, and pathogen typing. Use accredited laboratories. Discuss sample handling and interpretation with a veterinary microbiologist. **Uncertainty in diagnostics** No test is 100 percent sensitive or specific. False negatives occur. If clinical suspicion remains high despite negative results, retest additional animals or use a different test modality. Work with the veterinarian to interpret results in context of farm history and clinical signs. ### Emergency Preparedness Emergencies include disease outbreaks, natural disasters, fires, and loss of utilities. A written emergency plan reduces chaos and improves outcomes. **Disease outbreak response** If a reportable or high consequence disease is suspected: 1. Immediately stop pig movement within the farm. 2. Isolate affected barns or rooms. Do not leave the premises. 3. Contact the veterinarian and state animal health official. 4. Follow quarantine instructions. Do not sell or move pigs. 5. Implement enhanced biosecurity. Increase disinfection, limit personnel, lock gates. 6. Prepare for depopulation if required. Work with regulators on approved methods. **Natural disaster and fire** - Have an evacuation plan for personnel and animals if safe. - Secure water, feed, and power backup. Generators for ventilated barns are critical. - Maintain contact lists for emergency services, utility companies, and animal health authorities. - After disaster, assess structural integrity before re entering. Check ventilation, feed, and water. Inspect pigs for injury or stress. **Table: Emergency Contact List** | Contact | Phone Number | Notes | |---------|--------------|-------| | Swine veterinarian | Farm specific | 24 hour availability | | State animal health official | Varies by state | Reportable disease hotline | | Local [veterinary diagnostic lab](/blog/careers/veterinary-diagnostic-laboratory-careers-from-bench-to-leadership) | Varies by region | Submission instructions | | Fire department | Local emergency | Farm address and access | | Utility company | Local | Power outage reporting | | Rendering service | Farm specific | Mortality disposal | **Worker safety during emergencies** During disease outbreaks, workers face increased zoonotic risk. Provide appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE) including gloves, boots, coveralls, and N95 respirators. Train workers on safe removal of PPE. In fire or chemical spills, prioritize human life. Have first aid supplies and fire extinguishers accessible. For ammonia exposure from manure pits, evacuate immediately and contact hazardous materials team. **Records to keep during emergencies** - Communication log. Dates, times, and discussions with veterinarians, officials, and staff. - Movement restrictions. Record any exceptions. - Mortality records. Count, location, and disposal method. - Treatment records. If depopulation occurs, document method and number. ### Food Safety and Antibiotic Stewardship Healthy pigs produce safe pork. Responsible antibiotic use protects public health and maintains market access. **Withdrawal periods** Every antibiotic and feed additive has a label specified withdrawal period before slaughter. Maintain treatment records including product, dose, route, date, and withdrawal end date. Do not ship pigs until withdrawal period has elapsed. **Record keeping for food safety** - Treatment records for each group or individual pig. - Batch numbers of vaccines and medications. - Feed mill records for medicated feed. - Water medication log if using in line. **Antibiotic stewardship** Use antibiotics only under veterinary prescription and after diagnosis. Treat based on culture and sensitivity when possible. Implement feed and water management to reduce disease pressure, such as adjusting particle size, ensuring clean drinking water, and avoiding overcrowding. Use vaccines, probiotics, and improved genetics to reduce the need for antibiotics. **Sustainability through reduced antibiotic use** Reducing antimicrobial use contributes to sustainability by lowering costs, preserving antibiotic efficacy, and meeting consumer and regulatory expectations. Use [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) resources for guidance on integrated disease management. Monitor herd health indicators to demonstrate progress. **Uncertainty in food safety** Even with records, traceability depends on accurate identification. Use ear tags or electronic identification for treated pigs. In an outbreak, ensure all pigs from affected group are tracked. Work with packers and regulators to verify compliance. ### Worker Safety and Welfare Worker health and animal welfare are connected. A stressed or injured worker cannot provide good care. Poor welfare increases disease susceptibility in pigs. **Handling sick pigs** - Wear disposable gloves when handling sick pigs. Wash hands frequently. - Use separate equipment for sick pigs. Disinfect after use. - Euthanize pigs that cannot recover promptly. Acceptable methods include captive bolt, electrocution, or lethal injection by a veterinarian. Follow [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) guidelines for humane euthanasia. - Never drag or throw pigs. Use appropriate restraint. **Personal protective equipment (PPE)** - Boots and coveralls dedicated to each barn. - Gloves for blood, feces, or handling dead pigs. - Respiratory protection when working in dusty or ammonia high environments. - Eye protection when handling chemicals or during pressure washing. **Zoonotic diseases** Swine can transmit diseases such as influenza, leptospirosis, and Brucella. Sick workers should avoid pig contact. Train workers to recognize symptoms in themselves: fever, cough, diarrhea. Report illness to supervisor. **Welfare monitoring** Integrate welfare indicators into daily health checks. Look for signs of injury, prolonged hunger, thirst, or inability to express normal behavior. Adjust stocking density, feeder space, and enrichment. Use [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) for welfare recommendations. ### Sustainability in Health Management Sustainable health management reduces reliance on chemical inputs and minimizes environmental impact. **Disease prevention through management** Good management is the most sustainable health strategy. Proper ventilation, temperature control, nutrition, and hygiene prevent many diseases. Use genetics selected for disease resistance. **Waste and carcass disposal** Biosecure disposal protects groundwater and air quality. Composting is sustainable if done correctly. Carcass composting requires carbon material and proper temperature. Rendering recovers nutrients and energy. Burying may contribute to groundwater contamination. Follow local environmental regulations. **Environmental biosecurity** Manure from infected pigs can carry pathogens to water sources. Manage manure storage and application to prevent runoff. Consider treatment technologies. **Record keeping for sustainability** - Antibiotic use records. Total amount per pig produced. - Mortality and culling rates. - Feed efficiency. Lower FCR means less land and water used. - Carbon footprint. Work with a sustainability consultant. **Uncertainty in sustainability metrics** No single metric captures all impacts. Use multiple indicators and consult an extension specialist to set realistic targets. ### Frequently Asked Questions **1. How often should I observe my pigs?** At least once daily, and more often during high stress transitions such as weaning or hot weather. If a disease outbreak is suspected, check every four to six hours. **2. What are the first signs of a disease outbreak?** Early signs include reduced feed consumption, increased respiratory noise, lethargy, and an unexpected increase in death loss. Any pig found dead without prior signs is a red flag. **3. How long should quarantine last?** A minimum of 30 days for incoming breeding stock. Extend to 60 days if disease risk is high. Test pigs for key pathogens at day 0 and day 28. **4. Can I reuse bedding from a sick pen?** No. Remove and dispose all bedding from sick pens. Do not use it for any other pigs. Disease can survive in organic matter. **5. What samples are best for diagnosing respiratory disease?** Collect bronchoalveolar lavage from a freshly euthanized pig or nasal swabs from live pigs with nasal discharge. For chronic coughing, collect lung tissue from necropsy. **6. How do I know if my biosecurity is effective?** Monitor key indicators. Reduce introduction of pathogens by tracking the source of replacement pigs. Trend disease incidence and mortality. Use [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) reports to compare your farm with industry benchmarks. **7. What should I do if a pig dies suddenly?** Do not move the carcass until a plan is made. Examine the pig for signs of trauma or disease. If other pigs are sick, contact the veterinarian. If multiple sudden deaths occur, suspect toxin, heat stress, or infectious disease. Collect samples for laboratory submission. **8. How can I reduce antibiotic use without compromising health?** Invest in biosecurity, vaccination, and improved ventilation. Use feed additives like probiotics or organic acids. Work with a nutritionist to reduce mycotoxin risk. Monitor health trends. Preserve antibiotics for treatment of diagnosed disease, not for routine prevention. ### References - [FAO animal production](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) - [WOAH terrestrial standards](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) - [USDA APHIS animal health](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) - [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) - [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) ### Related Farming Links - /knowledge/animal-farming/pig-farming-breeding-farrowing - /knowledge/animal-farming/pig-nutrition-guide - /knowledge/animal-farming/biosecurity-swine-operations - /knowledge/animal-farming/nursery-pig-management - /knowledge/animal-farming/grow-finish-pig-welfare ### Educational Notice This information is provided for educational purposes only. It does not constitute diagnosis, treatment, or veterinary advice. Producers should consult their own veterinarians, nutritionists, and regulatory authorities for farm specific recommendations. The author and publisher assume no liability for actions taken based on this content. Always comply with local laws and standards. ## Related Farming Guides - [Starting a pig farm](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/starting-a-pig-farm) - [Pig barn ventilation and thermal comfort](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/pig-barn-ventilation-and-thermal-comfort) - [Pig farm biosecurity plan](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/pig-farm-biosecurity-plan) - [Production records for pig farms](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/production-records-for-pig-farms) - [Farm biosecurity planning](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/how-to-write-a-farm-biosecurity-plan) - [Veterinary diagnostics library](/knowledge/diagnostics)