# [Goat Kidding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/goat-kidding-management-from-pregnancy-to-weaning) and Care ## Key Takeaways - **Pre-kidding nutritional management is critical:** Increasing feed energy density by 15-20% in the final 4 weeks of gestation, alongside providing free-choice selenium and vitamin E, directly impacts kid birth weight, doe milk production, and reduces retained placenta risk. Does with a body condition score below 2.5 are at higher risk for complications. - **Immediate newborn care is paramount for survival:** Clearing airways, vigorous drying to prevent hypothermia, and ensuring colostrum intake within the first hour of life are essential for establishing respiration, thermoregulation, and passive immunity. Navel dipping with 7% iodine solution within 2-4 hours of birth significantly reduces the risk of omphalophlebitis. - **Colostrum quality and timely administration are vital for passive immunity:** High-quality colostrum (IgG > 50 g/L) must be fed within 6 hours of birth, with the first feeding providing 10% of the kid's body weight. Frozen reserves should be thawed carefully to preserve immunoglobulin activity. - **Birthing assistance requires precise timing and technique:** Intervention is indicated if Stage 1 labor exceeds 12 hours, Stage 2 labor exceeds 2 hours without delivery, or if abnormal presentation is suspected. Assisted delivery should involve gentle traction only during contractions, and veterinary consultation is necessary if delivery is not achieved within 15 minutes of active assistance. - **Weaning success hinges on gradual transition and solid feed intake:** Kids should be weaned at 8-12 weeks of age when they consistently consume 1-2% of their body weight in solid feed daily for three consecutive days, with minimum weaning weights of 20-25 lbs for dairy breeds and 25-35 lbs for meat breeds. Gradual reduction of milk feedings over 7-10 days supports rumen development. --- This article provides goat farmers with practical guidance on managing the kidding season, from pre-kidding preparation through weaning. The content covers birthing assistance, newborn care, colostrum management, and weaning protocols based on established animal science principles. All recommendations are grounded in evidence from official agricultural sources and peer-reviewed research. ## At a Glance: Kidding Season Management Overview | Management Phase | Key Actions | Critical Timing | Primary Goals | |-----------------|-------------|-----------------|---------------| | Pre-kidding preparation | Clean kidding pens, assemble supplies, monitor nutrition | Last 4 weeks of gestation | Reduce stress, prevent complications, ensure doe readiness | | Birthing assistance | Observe for normal progress, intervene only when necessary | Active labor (Stage 2) | Minimize dystocia, protect doe and kid health | | Newborn care | Clear airways, dry kids, ensure nursing within 1 hour | First 2 hours post-birth | Establish breathing, prevent hypothermia, initiate colostrum intake | | Colostrum management | Feed high-quality colostrum within 6 hours, store frozen reserves | First 24 hours of life | Transfer passive immunity, reduce mortality | | Weaning | Gradual separation, monitor feed intake and weight gain | 8-12 weeks of age | Transition to solid feed, maintain growth, reduce stress | ## Pre-Kidding Preparation ### Gestation Timeline and Doe Management The reproductive cycle of goats follows a predictable pattern that allows farmers to plan kidding seasons effectively. The Reproductive cycle of goats (Animal Reproduction Science, 2011) describes the physiological basis for seasonal breeding and gestation length. Understanding this cycle helps farmers schedule breeding to align kidding with favorable weather and feed availability. Management of goat reproduction and insemination for genetic improvement in France (Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 2008) provides context for how controlled breeding programs improve herd genetics and kidding outcomes. Farmers should maintain accurate breeding records to predict kidding dates within a 5-day window. ### Nutritional Preparation for Late Gestation Feeding strategies for rearing replacement dairy goats from birth to kidding (Animal, 2023) emphasizes that nutrition during late gestation directly affects kid birth weight and doe milk production. Increase feed energy density by 15-20% during the last 4 weeks of gestation. Provide free-choice minerals, particularly selenium and vitamin E, to support placental health and reduce retained placenta risk. [Body condition scoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/body-condition-scoring-a-tool-for-feed-management) at 4 weeks pre-kidding helps identify underconditioned does that require additional supplementation. Does with body condition scores below 2.5 (on a 5-point scale) have higher rates of kidding complications and produce lower-quality colostrum. ### Kidding Pen Setup and Biosecurity Clean kidding pens thoroughly between uses. Remove all organic matter, disinfect surfaces, and allow pens to dry completely before introducing pregnant does. The USDA National Agricultural Library's Animal Health and Welfare resource (USDA National Agricultural Library) provides general biosecurity principles applicable to kidding facilities. Set up individual kidding pens measuring at least 4x6 feet per doe. Provide clean, dry bedding such as straw or wood shavings. Maintain ambient temperature above 50°F (10°C) for newborn kids, using heat lamps or supplemental heating in cold weather. Ensure proper ventilation to reduce ammonia buildup while preventing drafts. ### Supplies and Equipment Checklist Assemble the following supplies before kidding season begins: - Clean towels for drying kids - Iodine solution (7%) for navel dipping - Obstetrical lubricant - Clean obstetrical gloves - Bulb syringe for clearing airways - Colostrum replacer or frozen colostrum reserves - Milk replacer and feeding equipment - Heat lamps or warming boxes - Scale for weighing kids - Ear tags and applicator - Record-keeping materials ## Birthing Assistance and Intervention ### Normal Kidding Progression Stage 1 of labor involves cervical dilation and uterine contractions, lasting 2-12 hours. Does may isolate themselves, paw bedding, and show restlessness. Stage 2 begins with visible abdominal contractions and ends with delivery of the kid, typically taking 30 minutes to 2 hours. Stage 3 involves expulsion of fetal membranes within 2-4 hours after kidding. Normal presentation is front feet first with the head resting between the front legs. Rear presentation (breech) occurs in approximately 5-10% of kidding and may require assistance if progress stalls. ### When to Intervene Intervene when: - Stage 1 labor exceeds 12 hours without progression to Stage 2 - Stage 2 labor exceeds 2 hours without delivery - Visible contractions continue for 30 minutes without progress - Abnormal presentation is suspected (only one foot visible, head back, breech without progress) - Doe shows signs of distress (excessive straining, vocalization, exhaustion) The Special problems of hair goats (Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 1990) discusses breed-specific kidding challenges that may require earlier intervention. Farmers should know their breed's typical kidding patterns and consult veterinary guidance for high-risk individuals. ### Assisted Delivery Techniques Wash the perineal area with mild soap and warm water. Apply obstetrical lubricant to gloved hands. Gently examine the birth canal to determine presentation and position. For front presentation with head back, carefully repulse the kid into the uterus and bring the head forward. For breech presentation, apply gentle traction to the hind legs during contractions. Apply traction only during contractions and in a downward arc following the doe's natural birth canal angle. Use moderate force, excessive traction can damage the doe's reproductive tract. If delivery is not achieved within 15 minutes of active assistance, contact a veterinarian. ### Post-Kidding Doe Care After kidding, provide the doe with warm water and high-quality hay. Monitor for retained placenta, if membranes are not expelled within 12 hours, consult veterinary guidance. The Effect of different post-partum therapeutic protocols with intrauterine oxytetracycline, oxytocin and/or GnRH injection in post-kidding goats on oxytetracyclines residues in goat milk and postpartum ovarian resumption (BMC Veterinary Research, 2023) examines postpartum treatment protocols and their implications for milk withdrawal periods. Farmers should follow veterinary-prescribed protocols and observe all withdrawal periods for any medications administered. ## Newborn Kid Care ### Immediate Post-Birth Procedures Clear the kid's airways immediately after delivery. Use a bulb syringe to remove mucus from the mouth and nostrils. Rub the kid vigorously with a clean towel to stimulate breathing and dry the coat. This drying process is critical for preventing hypothermia, especially in cold weather. Apply 7% iodine solution to the navel cord immediately after birth. Dip the entire cord and repeat application within 2-4 hours. This reduces the risk of navel ill (omphalophlebitis), a common cause of neonatal mortality. ### Hypothermia Prevention Newborn kids have limited thermoregulatory ability. Maintain environmental temperature at 60-70°F (15-21°C) for the first 24 hours. Use heat lamps positioned at least 18 inches above bedding to prevent burns. Provide a warming box for weak or chilled kids, maintaining temperature at 95-100°F (35-38°C) for the first 2-4 hours. Monitor rectal temperature in weak kids. Normal newborn temperature is 101-103°F (38.5-39.5°C). Kids with temperatures below 100°F (37.8°C) require immediate warming and colostrum feeding. ### Navel Care and Disease Prevention Dip navels in 7% iodine solution immediately after birth and again at 12-24 hours. Keep bedding clean and dry to reduce bacterial contamination. Monitor navel stumps for swelling, heat, or discharge, which indicate infection requiring veterinary attention. The USDA Agricultural Research Service (USDA ARS) provides research on livestock disease prevention that applies to kidding management. Maintain clean kidding pens and practice all-in-all-out management to break disease cycles. ## Colostrum Management ### Importance of Colostrum Colostrum is the first milk produced after kidding, rich in immunoglobulins that provide passive immunity to newborn kids. Kids are born with minimal immune protection and rely entirely on colostrum antibodies for disease resistance during the first weeks of life. Colostrum also provides concentrated energy, vitamins, and growth factors. ### Colostrum Quality Assessment Colostrum quality varies among does. First-lactation does and does with short dry periods often produce lower-quality colostrum. Use a colostrometer or refractometer to measure colostrum quality. Good-quality colostrum has immunoglobulin G (IgG) levels above 50 g/L. Colostrum with IgG below 20 g/L provides inadequate passive transfer. Store frozen colostrum reserves from healthy, tested does. Freeze colostrum in 4-ounce portions in clean containers. Thaw slowly in warm water (not above 120°F/49°C) to preserve antibody activity. Never microwave colostrum, as this destroys immunoglobulins. ### Colostrum Feeding Protocol Feed colostrum within the first 2 hours of life, ideally within 30 minutes. The first feeding should provide 10% of the kid's body weight (approximately 4-6 ounces for a 5-8 pound kid). Feed a second feeding 6-8 hours later, providing another 10% of body weight. For kids that cannot nurse naturally, use a clean bottle with a lamb nipple or esophageal feeder. Tube feeding is appropriate for weak kids that cannot suckle. Use a clean, lubricated feeding tube and measure insertion length from mouth to last rib before feeding. ### Colostrum Replacers and Supplements When fresh or frozen colostrum is unavailable, use commercial colostrum replacers specifically formulated for goat kids. These products contain concentrated immunoglobulins and should be mixed according to manufacturer instructions. Colostrum supplements (lower immunoglobulin concentration) are not substitutes for colostrum replacer in kids that have received no colostrum. ## Newborn Nutrition and Feeding ### Milk Feeding Schedule After the first 24 hours of colostrum feeding, transition to goat milk or high-quality milk replacer. Feed kids 4-6 times daily during the first week, then reduce to 3-4 feedings by week 2. Total daily milk intake should be 15-20% of body weight. Milk replacer should contain 24-28% crude protein and 20-25% fat for optimal growth. Mix replacer according to manufacturer instructions at 100-110°F (38-43°C). Discard any milk not consumed within 30 minutes to prevent bacterial growth. ### Feeding Equipment Sanitation Clean all feeding equipment after each use. Bottles, nipples, and buckets should be washed with hot soapy water, rinsed, and sanitized with a chlorine solution (1 tablespoon bleach per gallon of water). Air dry equipment completely before reuse. Contaminated feeding equipment is a primary source of enteric infections in kid goats. ### Transition to Solid Feed Introduce starter grain and hay at 2-3 weeks of age. Offer a high-quality creep feed containing 18-20% crude protein. Provide free-choice hay, preferably legume hay such as alfalfa, which provides protein and calcium for growing kids. Monitor feed intake and adjust amounts based on growth rates. Kids should consume 0.5-1 pound of starter grain daily by 8 weeks of age. Provide fresh water at all times from 1 week of age. ## Weaning Management ### Weaning Timing and Criteria Weaning typically occurs at 8-12 weeks of age, depending on kid weight and feed intake. The Review: Feeding strategies for rearing replacement dairy goats from birth to kidding (Animal, 2023) discusses optimal weaning strategies for replacement animals. Wean kids when they consistently consume at least 1-2% of body weight in solid feed daily for 3 consecutive days. Minimum weaning weight varies by breed. For dairy breeds, wean at 20-25 pounds (9-11 kg). For meat breeds, wean at 25-35 pounds (11-16 kg). Weaning based on weight instead of age reduces post-weaning growth checks. ### Gradual Weaning Protocol Reduce milk feedings gradually over 7-10 days. For kids fed twice daily, reduce to once daily for 3-4 days, then every other day for 3-4 days before complete weaning. This gradual reduction allows rumen development to catch up with nutritional demands. Monitor body weight weekly during and after weaning. Kids should maintain or gain weight during the [weaning transition](/knowledge/animal-farming/swine/weaning-transition-feed-and-water-management). Weight loss exceeding 5% of body weight indicates premature weaning or inadequate solid feed intake. ### Post-Weaning Management After weaning, group kids by size and age to reduce competition. Provide free-choice starter grain and high-quality hay. Continue [monitoring feed intake](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/monitoring-feed-intake-tools-techniques) and growth rates. Vaccinate and deworm according to your herd health program. The Effect of improved management practices on productive and reproductive performance of Osmanabadi goats under semi-intensive rearing systems (Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 2021) demonstrates that improved management during the rearing period positively affects lifetime productivity. Apply these principles to your weaning program. ## Records and Measurements ### Essential Kidding Records Maintain individual records for each doe and kid. Record: - Doe identification and breeding date - Kidding date and duration of labor - Number of kids born (single, twin, triplet) - Kid birth weights and sex - Assistance required during kidding - Colostrum feeding details - Health treatments and medications administered - Weaning date and weight ### Growth Monitoring Weigh kids at birth, weekly through weaning, and monthly thereafter. Plot growth curves to identify individuals with poor growth rates. Target weight gains of 0.3-0.5 pounds (150-250 grams) per day for dairy kids and 0.4-0.6 pounds (180-270 grams) per day for meat kids. The Growth performance of Woyto-Guji and Central Highland [goat breeds](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/equine-and-farm/goat-breeds-a-comparative-overview-for-selection) under traditional management system in Ethiopia (Livestock Research for Rural Development, 2016) illustrates how growth rates vary by breed and management system. Use breed-specific growth targets when available. ### Health Records Record all health interventions, including vaccinations, deworming, and treatments for illness. Note dates, products used, dosages, and withdrawal periods for any medications. The USDA National Agricultural Library's Animal Health and Welfare resource (USDA National Agricultural Library) provides guidance on maintaining health records for regulatory compliance. ## Common Failure Patterns ### Dystocia and Birthing Complications Dystocia (difficult birth) occurs in 5-15% of kidding, depending on breed and management. Common causes include: - Fetal malpresentation (head back, breech, transverse) - Fetal-maternal disproportion (large kid, small doe) - Uterine inertia (weak contractions) - Cervical dilation failure The Special problems of hair goats (Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 1990) identifies breed-specific dystocia patterns. Farmers should recognize when intervention is needed and when to escalate to veterinary care. ### Hypothermia and Starvation Hypothermia is the leading cause of kid mortality in the first 48 hours. Risk factors include: - Cold, wet weather - Inadequate colostrum intake - Weak or premature kids - Large litters with competition for milk Prevent hypothermia through proper drying, warming, and colostrum feeding. Monitor kids for shivering, lethargy, and cold extremities. Rewarm hypothermic kids gradually using warm water baths or warming boxes. ### Enteric Infections Scours (diarrhea) in kid goats is commonly caused by E. coli, Cryptosporidium, or coccidia. Risk factors include: - Inadequate colostrum intake - Contaminated feeding equipment - Overcrowding and poor sanitation - Stress from weather or handling Prevent enteric infections through strict sanitation, adequate colostrum, and proper nutrition. Isolate affected kids and consult veterinary guidance for treatment protocols. ### Navel Ill and Joint Ill Navel ill (omphalophlebitis) results from bacterial infection of the umbilical cord. Joint ill (infectious arthritis) occurs when bacteria spread from the navel to joints. Both conditions are preventable through proper navel dipping and clean bedding. Signs include swollen navel, hot joints, lameness, and fever. Early treatment with veterinary-prescribed antibiotics improves outcomes. Chronic cases may result in permanent joint damage and reduced growth. ## Welfare and Safety Context ### Doe Welfare During Kidding Minimize stress during kidding by providing quiet, clean facilities and allowing does to follow natural behaviors. Avoid unnecessary handling during labor. Provide adequate space for does to isolate themselves if desired. The FAO Animal Production and Health division (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) provides international guidelines for livestock welfare during parturition. Apply these principles to your kidding management program. ### Worker Safety Kidding assistance carries risks of injury from doe kicks, bites, and obstetrical procedures. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment including gloves and sturdy footwear. Use proper lifting techniques when handling heavy equipment or restraining does. Have an emergency plan for veterinary consultation and transport of sick animals. Maintain clear communication protocols with farm staff during kidding season. ### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Considerations For dairy operations, observe all milk withdrawal periods following medication administration. The Effect of different post-partum therapeutic protocols with intrauterine oxytetracycline, oxytocin and/or GnRH injection in post-kidding goats on oxytetracyclines residues in goat milk and postpartum ovarian resumption (BMC Veterinary Research, 2023) highlights the importance of monitoring drug residues in milk. Maintain accurate treatment records and test milk for antibiotic residues when required. ## Professional Escalation Criteria ### When to Contact a Veterinarian Contact a veterinarian immediately when: - Stage 1 labor exceeds 12 hours without progression - Stage 2 labor exceeds 2 hours without delivery - Assisted delivery fails after 15 minutes of gentle traction - Doe shows signs of systemic illness (fever, depression, anorexia) - Retained placenta beyond 12 hours post-kidding - Uterine prolapse occurs - Kid shows signs of severe illness (weakness, inability to stand, respiratory distress) ### When to Seek Technical Assistance Consult extension specialists or experienced breeders when: - Kidding complication rates exceed 10% of the herd - Kid mortality rates exceed 5% in the first week - Colostrum quality is consistently poor - Weaning weights fall below breed standards - Reproductive performance declines over multiple seasons The Genetic and environmental factors affecting the kidding interval of dairy goats in the semi-arid northeastern (Revista Brasileira De Zootecnia, 2003) and Genetic and environmental factors on the age of first kidding of milk goats (Revista Brasileira De Zootecnia, 1997) provide context for evaluating reproductive performance. Use these references to benchmark your herd's performance. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How do I know when a goat is about to kid? Signs of impending kidding include udder enlargement and filling, relaxation of the pelvic ligaments (visible as hollowing around the tail head), vulvar swelling and discharge, and behavioral changes such as isolation, restlessness, and pawing at bedding. These signs typically appear 12-24 hours before kidding. Does may also stop eating and show increased vocalization. ### What should I do if a kid is not breathing after birth? Clear the airways immediately using a bulb syringe to remove mucus from the mouth and nostrils. Rub the kid vigorously with a clean towel to stimulate breathing. If the kid does not breathe within 30 seconds, hold it upside down by the hind legs for 10-15 seconds to drain fluids. Gently stimulate the chest with rhythmic pressure. Continue resuscitation efforts for at least 5 minutes before considering the kid nonviable. ### How much colostrum does a newborn goat need? A newborn goat needs 10% of its body weight in colostrum within the first 6 hours of life, divided into two feedings. For a 7-pound (3.2 kg) kid, this equals approximately 10-12 ounces (300-350 ml) total. The first feeding should occur within 30 minutes of birth, providing half the total amount. The second feeding follows 6-8 hours later. ### Can I use cow colostrum for goat kids? Cow colostrum can be used for goat kids in emergency situations when goat colostrum is unavailable. However, cow colostrum has lower immunoglobulin levels for goats and may not provide adequate passive immunity. Commercial goat colostrum replacers are preferred. If using cow colostrum, ensure it comes from a herd with no history of Johne's disease or [bovine leukemia virus](/knowledge/viruses/livestock-viruses/bovine-leukemia-virus). ### When should I wean goat kids? Wean goat kids at 8-12 weeks of age when they consistently consume 1-2% of body weight in solid feed daily for 3 consecutive days. Minimum weaning weight for dairy breeds is 20-25 pounds (9-11 kg) and for meat breeds is 25-35 pounds (11-16 kg). Weaning based on weight instead of age reduces post-weaning growth checks. ### How do I prevent navel ill in newborn kids? Prevent navel ill by dipping the navel cord in 7% iodine solution immediately after birth and again at 12-24 hours. Keep kidding pens clean and dry, using fresh bedding between does. Ensure kids receive adequate colostrum within the first 6 hours of life. Monitor navel stumps for swelling, heat, or discharge, and treat infections promptly with veterinary guidance. ### What causes kidding complications in goats? Kidding complications (dystocia) result from fetal malpresentation, fetal-maternal disproportion, uterine inertia, or cervical dilation failure. Risk factors include first-kidding does, very large or very small litters, poor maternal nutrition, and certain breeds. The Special problems of hair goats (Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice, 1990) discusses breed-specific considerations. ### How long after kidding can a goat be bred again? The kidding interval varies by breed and management. The Genetic and environmental factors affecting the kidding interval of dairy goats in the semi-arid northeastern (Revista Brasileira De Zootecnia, 2003) examines factors influencing kidding intervals. Most [goat breeds](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/equine-and-farm/goat-breeds-a-comparative-overview-for-selection) can be bred 2-3 months after kidding, allowing for uterine involution and return to normal estrous cycles. The Effect of breed and management practices on reproductive and milking performance of rangeland goats (Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2022) provides additional context on reproductive management. ## Related Farming Guides - [Meat Goat Pasture And Browse Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/meat-goat-pasture-and-browse-management) - [Raising Meat Goats From Weaning To Market](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/raising-meat-goats-from-weaning-to-market) - [Predator Management For Goat Farms Prevention And Documentation](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/predator-management-for-goat-farms-prevention-and-documentation) - [Goat Farming Dairy And Meat Production Browse Kidding Parasite Risk And Welfare](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/goat-farming-dairy-and-meat-production-browse-kidding-parasite-risk-and-welfare) - [Dairy Cow Cooling System Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-cooling-system-management) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Goat Breeding Season Planning: Timing, Nutrition, and Health Checks](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/goat-breeding-season-planning) * [Alfalfa Hay for Goats: Feeding Decisions and Mineral Context](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/alfalfa-hay-for-goats-feeding-decisions-and-mineral-context) * [Goat Fiber Production: Cashmere and Mohair Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/goat-fiber-production-cashmere-mohair-management) ## References and Further Reading - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) - [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Effect of different post-partum therapeutic protocols with intrauterine oxytetracycline, oxytocin and/or GnRH injection in post-kidding goats on oxytetracyclines residues in goat milk and postpartum ovarian resumption with referring to clinical and haematological pictures.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37658349). BMC veterinary research, 2023. - [Review: Feeding strategies for rearing replacement dairy goats - from birth to kidding.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37271015). Animal : an international journal of animal bioscience, 2023. - [Reproductive cycle of goats.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20888155). Animal reproduction science, 2011. - [Induction of parturition in a large number of pregnant dairy goats and its benefits as a management tool in a commercial scale goat operation.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34082221). Theriogenology, 2021. - [Management of goat reproduction and insemination for genetic improvement in France.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18638150). Reproduction in domestic animals = Zuchthygiene, 2008. - [Special problems of hair goats.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2245371). The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice, 1990. - [Genetic and environmental factors affecting the kidding interval of dairy goats in the semi-arid northeastern](https://doi.org/10.1590/s1516-35982003000400012). Revista Brasileira De Zootecnia, 2003. - [Effect of improved management practices on productive and reproductive performance of Osmanabadi goats under semi-intensive rearing systems](https://doi.org/10.56093/ijans.v91i6.115455). Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 2021. - [Growth performance of woyto-guji and central highland goat breeds under traditional management system in Ethiopia](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/84953223125). Livestock Research for Rural Development, 2016. - [Genetic and environmental factors on the age of first kidding of milk goats](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/17044458177). Revista Brasileira De Zootecnia, 1997. - [Effect of breed and management practices on reproductive and milking performance of rangeland goats](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-022-03193-9). Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2022. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.