# Total Mixed Ration (TMR) for Dairy Cows: A Guide ## Key Takeaways - Total Mixed Ration (TMR) stabilizes rumen pH by providing a consistent nutrient profile in every bite, thereby enhancing microbial fermentation and improving feed efficiency for milk production. - Forage constitutes 40-60% of the TMR dry matter, with particle size critical; 15-20% of particles should remain on the top sieve (0.75-inch openings) of a Penn State Particle Separator to stimulate chewing and saliva production. - Accurate dry matter intake (DMI) is paramount, with target refusals of 3-5% of offered feed ensuring continuous access and preventing underfeeding, while monitoring DMI daily is the most critical metric for herd performance. - Mixer management is crucial, requiring specific loading orders, mixing times of 3-7 minutes post-ingredient addition, and regular calibration of scales to ensure ration uniformity and prevent metabolic disorders like acidosis. - Monitoring key performance indicators such as DMI, milk production, milk components (fat and protein), body condition score, manure consistency, and rumen fill allows for early detection of ration-related issues and optimization of herd health and productivity. - Common TMR errors include inaccurate forage dry matter assessment, overmixing leading to reduced particle size, sorting by cows, inconsistent feeding times, and poor mixer calibration, all of which can be mitigated through diligent management and recordkeeping. --- Feeding dairy cows a total mixed ration is one of the most effective ways to boost milk production, improve herd health, and cut feed waste. This guide walks you through the fundamentals of TMR dairy cows, from understanding the components of a total mixed ration to building a feeding program that fits your operation. It is written for dairy farmers, herd managers, and farm employees who want practical, field-tested guidance on TMR feeding dairy systems, ration formulation, mixer management, and troubleshooting common problems. ## At a Glance | Topic | Key Takeaway | |---|---| | What is TMR | A complete feed combining forages, grains, proteins, minerals, and vitamins in one mix | | Main benefit | Cows eat a consistent diet at every meal, which stabilizes rumen pH and boosts milk production | | Forage level | Typically 40 to 60 percent of the ration dry matter, depending on production stage | | Particle size | Aim for 15 to 20 percent of particles longer than 1.5 inches on the top sieve | | Mixing time | 3 to 7 minutes after all ingredients are added, depending on mixer type | | Feeding frequency | Once or twice daily, with feed pushed up 4 to 6 times per day | | Refusals | Target 3 to 5 percent of offered feed to ensure cows never run empty | | Bunk management | Clean bunks regularly and monitor for sorting and stale feed | | Key metric | Dry matter intake is the single most important number to track | ## Why TMR Works: The Science Behind the System Dairy cows are ruminants, which means they have a four chamber stomach designed to ferment fibrous feed. The rumen, the largest chamber, hosts billions of microbes that break down feed into volatile fatty acids, microbial protein, and B vitamins. These microbes are sensitive to changes in pH and diet composition. When a cow eats a bolus of grain followed later by a bolus of hay, the rumen pH spikes and crashes. This roller coaster stresses the microbes and can lead to acidosis, laminitis, and reduced feed efficiency. A total mixed ration solves this problem by combining all feed ingredients into a single uniform mixture. Every bite a cow takes contains the same ratio of forage to grain to protein supplement. This consistency keeps the rumen environment stable. The microbes thrive, fiber digestion improves, and the cow converts feed to milk more efficiently. TMR feeding dairy systems also reduce sorting behavior. When cows are fed ingredients separately, they will eat the most palatable parts first and leave the less desirable components behind. This selective eating leads to an unbalanced diet over the course of the day. A well mixed TMR makes sorting more difficult, though not impossible. Cows will still push feed around with their muzzles to find preferred particles. ## Components of a Total Mixed Ration A proper dairy cow TMR ration contains five main categories of ingredients. Each serves a specific purpose and must be balanced against the others to meet the cow's nutritional needs. ### Forages Forages provide the fiber that keeps the rumen functioning properly. Common forages in dairy rations include corn silage, alfalfa hay, grass hay, small grain silage, and sorghum silage. Forages contribute energy, protein, and physically effective fiber. The length and coarseness of forage particles stimulate chewing and saliva production, which buffers rumen pH. Corn silage is the backbone of most dairy rations because it provides high energy density and consistent quality. Alfalfa contributes protein and calcium. Grass hays provide effective fiber but are lower in energy and protein. The forage mix you choose depends on what grows well in your region and what you can store and feed economically. ### Energy Sources Grains and other concentrates supply the energy that drives milk production. Common energy feeds include ground corn, high moisture corn, barley, wheat middlings, and molasses. These ingredients are high in starch or sugar, which the rumen microbes ferment into volatile fatty acids. The primary volatile fatty acid, propionate, is the main precursor for milk fat synthesis. Energy feeds must be processed to improve digestibility. Rolling or grinding corn increases the surface area available to microbes. The optimal particle size for corn is a coarse grind, about the consistency of cracked wheat. Finely ground corn digests too quickly and can cause acidosis. Whole corn passes through the digestive tract largely undigested. ### Protein Sources Protein feeds supply the amino acids a cow needs for milk [protein synthesis](/blog/guides/protein-synthesis-a-step-by-step-guide-to-transcription-and-translation) and tissue maintenance. Common protein sources include soybean meal, canola meal, distillers grains, cottonseed, and field peas. These ingredients vary in their rumen degradability. Soybean meal breaks down quickly, providing ammonia for microbial protein production. Distillers grains are higher in bypass protein, which escapes the rumen and is digested in the small intestine. The protein content of the ration must match the cow's production level. High producing cows need more protein, especially in early lactation. Overfeeding protein wastes money and increases nitrogen excretion. Underfeeding protein reduces milk production and can cause weight loss. ### Minerals and Vitamins Dairy cows need a precise balance of macrominerals, trace minerals, and vitamins. Calcium and phosphorus are critical for bone health and milk production. Magnesium prevents grass tetany. Sodium and chlorine maintain osmotic balance. Trace minerals like zinc, copper, manganese, and selenium support immune function and reproduction. Vitamins A, D, and E are essential for vision, calcium metabolism, and antioxidant protection. Most dairies use a commercial mineral and vitamin premix to meet these requirements. The premix is added to the TMR at a rate specified by the nutritionist. It is important to store premixes properly and verify that the mixer is dispensing the correct amount. ### Additives Feed additives are optional ingredients that improve performance or reduce specific problems. Common additives include buffers like sodium bicarbonate, yeast cultures, ionophores, and mold inhibitors. Buffers help stabilize rumen pH in high grain rations. Yeast cultures support fiber digestion and improve feed intake. Ionophores improve feed efficiency and reduce the risk of acidosis. Not every dairy needs additives. Work with your nutritionist to determine which additives, if any, are cost effective for your operation. ## Building a TMR Ration: Step by Step Formulating a dairy cow TMR ration requires current knowledge of your feeds, your cows, and your production goals. The following process outlines the steps from feed analysis to a finished ration. ### Step 1: Test Your Forages You cannot balance a ration without knowing the nutrient content of your feeds. Forage quality varies by harvest date, maturity, and storage method. Send samples to a certified forage testing laboratory. The lab will report dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber, acid detergent fiber, starch, minerals, and estimated energy values. Sample each forage source separately. Take samples from multiple locations in the silo or pile and combine them into one composite sample. For hay, use a core sampler to collect samples from multiple bales. Test every new cutting or storage unit. ### Step 2: Define Your Cow Groups Not all cows have the same nutritional needs. Grouping cows by production stage and milk yield allows you to feed each group a ration that matches their requirements. Common grouping strategies include: - Fresh cows: 0 to 21 days in milk - High group: cows producing above a set threshold, often 70 to 80 pounds per day - Mid group: cows producing 50 to 70 pounds per day - Low group: cows producing below 50 pounds per day - Dry cows: cows not lactating, divided into far off and close up groups Grouping adds complexity to feeding management. Each group needs its own ration and its own feed delivery. Small dairies may only have one or two groups. The tradeoff is between precision and simplicity. ### Step 3: Set Intake Targets Dry matter intake is the foundation of the ration. A cow must eat enough dry matter to support her milk production and maintain body condition. Intake is influenced by body weight, production level, stage of lactation, environmental temperature, and ration digestibility. As a starting point, a mature Holstein cow producing 80 pounds of milk will eat about 55 to 60 pounds of dry matter per day. A Jersey cow producing 50 pounds of milk will eat about 35 to 40 pounds. Your nutritionist will calculate target intakes based on your specific cows and conditions. ### Step 4: Balance the Ration Using the feed test results and intake targets, your nutritionist will formulate a ration that meets the cow's requirements for energy, protein, fiber, minerals, and vitamins. The ration is expressed as a percentage of dry matter or as pounds per cow per day. A typical lactating cow ration on a dry matter basis might look like this: - Corn silage: 40 percent - Alfalfa hay: 15 percent - High moisture corn: 25 percent - Soybean meal: 10 percent - Distillers grains: 5 percent - Mineral and vitamin premix: 4 percent - Additives: 1 percent The exact proportions depend on your feed availability and the cow's requirements. The nutritionist will use a ration balancing program to calculate the optimal mix. ### Step 5: Convert to As Fed Weights Rations are formulated on a dry matter basis, but you feed on an as fed basis. Forages contain 30 to 70 percent moisture. Grains and protein feeds contain 10 to 15 percent moisture. You must convert each ingredient from dry matter to as fed weight. The formula is simple. Divide the dry matter pounds by the dry matter percentage of the feed. For example, if the ration calls for 20 pounds of corn silage dry matter and the silage is 35 percent dry matter, you need to feed 57 pounds of corn silage as fed. This conversion is where many feeding errors occur. A wetter than expected forage will cause you to underfeed dry matter. A drier than expected forage will cause you to overfeed. Check forage moisture weekly and adjust your load sheets accordingly. ## TMR Mixer Management The mixer is the heart of the TMR feeding system. Proper mixer management ensures that every cow receives a consistent, well mixed ration. Neglecting the mixer leads to poor mixing, uneven rations, and reduced performance. ### Choosing the Right Mixer TMR mixers come in several configurations. The main types are: - Vertical mixers: A vertical auger lifts feed from the bottom and tumbles it over the top. These mixers handle long stem hay well and are popular for their durability. - Horizontal mixers: A horizontal auger moves feed along the bottom of the tub. These mixers are gentler on feed particles but may struggle with long hay. - Reel mixers: A rotating reel tumbles the feed gently. These mixers preserve particle size but take longer to mix. Mixer capacity is rated in cubic feet. A good rule of thumb is to fill the mixer to 60 to 80 percent of its rated capacity. Overfilling leads to poor mixing. Underfilling wastes energy and reduces mixing efficiency. ### Loading Order The order in which you add ingredients to the mixer affects the final mix quality. A standard loading order follows this pattern: 1. Long hay first, if using a vertical mixer 2. Other dry forages 3. Silages and wet feeds 4. Grains and concentrates 5. Protein supplements 6. Minerals, vitamins, and additives 7. Liquids such as molasses or water The goal is to establish a base of dry forage that prevents fine particles from settling at the bottom. Wet feeds add moisture and help bind the mix together. Add minerals and additives last so they stay on top and mix in quickly. ### Mixing Time Mixing time depends on the mixer type and the ingredients. Most mixers need 3 to 7 minutes of mixing after the last ingredient is added. Vertical mixers may need more time for long hay. Overmixing is a common problem. It reduces particle size, which defeats the purpose of a TMR. Undermixing leaves pockets of concentrate that cows can sort. Watch the mix through the observation window. The ration should look uniform with no visible clumps of concentrate or pockets of unmixed forage. Stop the mixer and check the consistency by hand. Squeeze a handful of the mix. It should hold together but crumble easily. ### Particle Size Management Particle size is critical for rumen function. Cows need long particles to stimulate chewing and saliva production. The standard method for evaluating particle size is the Penn State Particle Separator. This device has three sieves and a bottom pan. After mixing, take a sample of the TMR and place it on the top sieve. Shake the separator in a specific pattern. Weigh the material on each sieve. The target distribution for a lactating cow ration is: - Top sieve (0.75 inch openings): 15 to 20 percent - Middle sieve (0.31 inch openings): 20 to 30 percent - Bottom sieve (0.16 inch openings): 30 to 40 percent - Bottom pan: 10 to 20 percent If the top sieve holds less than 10 percent, the ration is too finely chopped. Cows will not chew enough, and rumen pH may drop. If the top sieve holds more than 25 percent, cows will sort out the long particles and leave them in the bunk. ### Mixer Maintenance A well maintained mixer lasts longer and mixes better. Follow the manufacturer's maintenance schedule. Key tasks include: - Grease all fittings daily or weekly as specified - Check auger and knife wear regularly - Tighten loose bolts and replace worn parts - Clean the mixer thoroughly when changing rations - Calibrate the scale system monthly Scale accuracy is essential. An inaccurate scale leads to over or underfeeding of ingredients. Test the scale with known weights and recalibrate as needed. ## Feeding Management The best ration in the world will not work if it is not delivered properly. Feeding management covers the daily routines of delivering feed, pushing up feed, and managing the bunk. ### Feeding Frequency Most dairies feed TMR once or twice per day. Feeding twice daily improves intake and reduces feed sorting. Cows are more likely to eat consistent meals throughout the day when fresh feed is delivered more often. If you feed once daily, deliver the feed at a consistent time each day. Cows are creatures of habit. A regular feeding schedule reduces stress and supports normal eating behavior. ### Pushing Up Feed Cows push feed away from the bunk as they eat. Feed that is out of reach is feed that is not eaten. Push feed up to the bunk at least 4 to 6 times per day. Many dairies use a tractor mounted blade or an automated feed pusher for this task. The goal is to keep feed available at all times. A cow should never have to stretch to reach the last few inches of feed. Empty bunks signal that cows are running out of feed, which can lead to slug feeding when fresh feed arrives. ### Managing Refusals Refusals are the feed left in the bunk at the next feeding. Target refusals of 3 to 5 percent of the offered feed. This ensures that cows have access to feed at all times and that the most timid cows get enough to eat. Too many refusals indicate overfeeding. Too few refusals indicate underfeeding. Weigh the refusals regularly and adjust the offered amount accordingly. Remove and discard refusals daily to prevent spoilage and mold growth. ### Bunk Scoring Bunk scoring is a visual assessment of how much feed cows have consumed. It helps you adjust feeding rates before cows run out of feed. The standard bunk scoring system uses a 0 to 3 scale: - Score 0: No feed left, bunk slick - Score 1: Scattered particles, mostly clean - Score 2: Thin layer of feed covering the bunk floor - Score 3: Thick layer of feed, 2 inches or more Score the bunk at a consistent time each day, ideally just before the next feeding. A score of 1 to 2 is ideal. A score of 0 means you are underfeeding. A score of 3 means you are overfeeding. ## Common TMR Mistakes and How to Fix Them Even experienced feeders make mistakes. The following problems are common on dairies using TMR systems. ### Inaccurate Forage Dry Matter Forage dry matter changes over time. Silage in a bunker dries out as it is exposed to air. Haylage in a pile can vary from wet to dry. If you do not adjust for these changes, your ration will be wrong. Test forage dry matter at least weekly. Use a microwave oven or a Koster tester for a quick on farm measurement. Adjust your load sheets to account for the current dry matter. Some dairies use moisture sensors on the mixer to automate this process. ### Overmixing Overmixing reduces particle size and turns the TMR into a porridge. This destroys the physical effectiveness of the fiber and can lead to acidosis. Time your mixing carefully and check particle size regularly. If you find that your mixer is overprocessing the feed, reduce mixing time. Consider using a mixer with a gentler action. Check the knives and augers for wear that might be increasing processing. ### Sorting Cows sort TMR to select preferred particles. They often push aside long forage to get at the grain and concentrate. Sorting leads to an unbalanced intake and can cause metabolic problems. To reduce sorting, manage particle size carefully. Ensure that the ration contains enough long particles to satisfy the cow's need to chew but not so many that sorting is easy. Add water or molasses to help fines stick to forage particles. Feed more frequently to reduce the time cows have to sort. ### Inconsistent Feeding Times Cows thrive on routine. Inconsistent feeding times stress the herd and can reduce intake. Feed at the same time every day. If you feed twice daily, keep the interval between feedings consistent. ### Poor Mixer Calibration An inaccurate scale can cause you to overfeed expensive supplements or underfeed critical minerals. Calibrate the scale monthly and after any maintenance. Test with known weights and adjust as needed. ### Ignoring Feed Bunk Space Cows need adequate bunk space to eat without competition. Provide 24 to 30 inches of bunk space per cow for mature Holsteins. Overcrowding reduces intake, especially for heifers and timid cows. ## Monitoring TMR Success You cannot manage what you do not measure. The following monitoring practices help you track the success of your TMR program and identify problems early. ### Dry Matter Intake Dry matter intake is the most important number on the dairy. Track intake daily by weighing feed delivered and feed refused. Calculate intake per cow by dividing total intake by the number of cows in the group. A sudden drop in intake is often the first sign of a problem. It can indicate a change in feed quality, a mixing error, or a health issue in the herd. Investigate any intake change of more than 5 percent. ### Milk Production Milk production responds to changes in the ration within days. Track milk yield per cow daily. Chart the data by group to identify trends. A drop in production often accompanies a drop in intake. Milk components are also informative. Milk fat percentage reflects rumen function and fiber digestion. Milk protein percentage reflects energy intake. A drop in milk fat may indicate acidosis or insufficient effective fiber. ### Body Condition Score Body condition score measures the cow's energy reserves. Score cows on a 1 to 5 scale, with 1 being emaciated and 5 being obese. Monitor body condition at key points in the lactation cycle. Cows should lose some condition in early lactation as they mobilize body fat to support milk production. They should regain condition in mid and late lactation. Excessive condition loss indicates underfeeding. Excessive gain indicates overfeeding. ### Manure Consistency Manure consistency reflects rumen function and feed digestion. Healthy cows produce manure that forms a flat patty, about 1 to 2 inches thick. Manure that is loose and runny may indicate acidosis or excess protein. Manure that is firm and dry may indicate inadequate water intake or poor fiber digestion. Check for undigested feed particles in the manure. Whole corn kernels and long forage particles suggest poor processing or sorting. Use a manure scoring chart to standardize your observations. ### Rumen Fill Rumen fill assesses how much feed the cow has consumed. It is evaluated by looking at the paralumbar fossa, the hollow area in front of the hip bone. A cow with good rumen fill has a full, rounded appearance in this area. Score rumen fill on a 1 to 5 scale. A score of 3 is ideal for lactating cows. Low rumen fill indicates inadequate intake or a health problem. ## Troubleshooting TMR Problems When something goes wrong with the TMR program, work through the following checklist to identify the cause. ### Step 1: Check the Feed Start by looking at the feed. Does it look consistent from one load to the next? Are there visible clumps of concentrate or pockets of unmixed forage? Does the feed smell fresh or is there a sour or moldy odor? Take a particle size measurement. Compare the results to your target distribution. If the particle size is off, adjust mixing time or ingredient processing. ### Step 2: Check the Mixer Inspect the mixer for mechanical problems. Are the augers turning properly? Are the knives sharp? Is the scale reading accurately? Run a test batch and verify the weights of each ingredient. ### Step 3: Check the Forages Forage quality can change between loads. A new silo or a new cutting can have very different nutrient content. Check the dry matter of each forage and adjust the ration accordingly. ### Step 4: Check the Cows Observe the cows at the bunk. Are they eating readily or are they hesitating? Are they sorting the feed? Are there cows standing away from the bunk that look uncomfortable? Check for signs of acidosis, including loose manure, reduced intake, and lameness. Check for displaced abomasum, which often follows a drop in intake. ### Step 5: Check the Records Review your feeding records. Has the amount of feed delivered changed? Has the refusal rate changed? Have any ingredients been substituted? Compare current practices to the written protocol. ## When to Call a Veterinarian or Extension Agent Most TMR feeding problems can be solved with careful management. However, some situations require professional help. Call a veterinarian immediately if you see: - Multiple cows with acute acidosis, including severe diarrhea, dehydration, and recumbency - Multiple cows with displaced abomasum - A sudden increase in down cows - Signs of bloat that do not respond to treatment - Neurological signs that could indicate feed toxicity Call a veterinarian or nutritionist if you see: - Persistent milk fat depression - Chronic laminitis or lameness - Poor reproduction despite adequate body condition - Unexplained drops in milk production Call your local extension agent if you need help with: - Forage testing and interpretation - Ration formulation - Bunk management training - Economic analysis of feeding programs - Troubleshooting feed storage issues Extension agents can also connect you with regional resources and research based recommendations. ## Economic Considerations TMR feeding systems require a significant investment in equipment and management. The mixer alone can cost tens of thousands of dollars. However, the returns often justify the investment. A well managed TMR system reduces feed waste by 5 to 10 percent compared to component feeding. It improves feed efficiency by 3 to 5 percent. It reduces the risk of metabolic disease, which saves on veterinary costs and lost production. The key to profitability is precision. A TMR system only pays off if you weigh ingredients accurately, test forages regularly, and monitor cow performance. Sloppy management turns a good system into a costly one. Track your feed costs per hundredweight of milk produced. Compare this number to regional averages. If your feed cost is above average, look for inefficiencies in your program. ## Recordkeeping for TMR Feeding Good records help you identify problems early and make informed decisions. The following records are essential for TMR management. ### Daily Feeding Records Record the following information for each group each day: - Amount of each ingredient delivered - Total feed delivered - Refusals from the previous feeding - Number of cows in the group - Calculated dry matter intake per cow - Bunk score - Any unusual observations ### Feed Inventory Records Track the inventory of each feed ingredient. Record deliveries, usage, and remaining inventory. This helps you plan purchases and avoid running out of a critical ingredient. ### Forage Test Records Keep a file of all forage test results. Record the date, the source, and the results for dry matter, protein, fiber, and energy. This history helps you understand how forage quality varies across the season. ### Milk Production Records Record daily milk production by group. Track milk fat and protein percentages from the monthly milk test. This data is essential for evaluating the ration. ### Health Records Record all health events, including treatments for acidosis, displaced abomasum, and lameness. Track the incidence of these conditions by group and over time. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How long should I mix a TMR? Mixing time depends on your mixer type and the ingredients. Most mixers need 3 to 7 minutes after the last ingredient is added. Vertical mixers may need more time for long hay. Watch the mix through the observation window and stop when it looks uniform. Overmixing reduces particle size and can cause acidosis, so err on the side of less time. ### What is the ideal particle size for a dairy TMR? Use a Penn State Particle Separator to evaluate your ration. The target distribution for a lactating cow ration is 15 to 20 percent on the top sieve, 20 to 30 percent on the middle sieve, 30 to 40 percent on the bottom sieve, and 10 to 20 percent in the pan. The top sieve particles should be at least 0.75 inches long. ### How much feed should I offer my cows? Offer enough feed so that 3 to 5 percent is refused at the next feeding. This ensures that cows have access to feed at all times. Weigh refusals regularly and adjust the offered amount. If refusals are above 5 percent, you are overfeeding. If bunks are slick before the next feeding, you are underfeeding. ### How often should I test my forages? Test forages when you harvest them and again when you start feeding from a new storage unit. Check dry matter at least weekly during feeding. Full nutrient analysis should be done at least monthly for silages, since quality changes during storage and feedout. ### Why is my milk fat percentage dropping? Milk fat depression often indicates a rumen pH problem. Check your particle size, especially the amount on the top sieve. Check for sorting at the bunk. Review the starch level in the ration. Consider adding a buffer like sodium bicarbonate. Work with your nutritionist to adjust the ration. ### Can I feed a TMR to dry cows? Yes, dry cows benefit from a TMR feeding system. The ration is lower in energy and protein than a lactating ration and higher in fiber. Close up dry cows, those in the last 3 weeks before calving, need a ration that prepares the rumen for the lactation ration. Many dairies use a close up ration that is similar to the lactating ration but lower in energy. ### How do I reduce sorting in my TMR? Manage particle size to reduce sorting. Ensure that the ration has enough moisture to help fines stick to forage particles. Add water or molasses if the ration is too dry. Feed more frequently to reduce the time cows have to sort. Provide adequate bunk space so timid cows can eat without competition. ### What should I do if my cows go off feed? A sudden drop in intake is an emergency. Check the cows for signs of acidosis or other health problems. Check the feed for mold, spoilage, or a change in ingredient quality. Verify that the mixer is working correctly and that the scale is accurate. Check the ration for errors in ingredient amounts. If the problem persists, call your veterinarian and nutritionist. ## Related Farming Guides This section will be populated with links to related farming guides covering dairy nutrition, herd health, forage management, and other farm management topics. ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Animal Welfare Audits: Building a Useful Farm Program](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/animal-welfare-audits-building-a-useful-farm-program) * [Total Mixed Ration (TMR) for Dairy: Mixing and Feeding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/total-mixed-ration-dairy-mixing-feeding) * [Feed Additives for Livestock: Probiotics, Enzymes, and More](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/feed-additives-livestock-probiotics-enzymes) ## References - [USDA Farm Management](https://www.farmers.gov/) - [FAO Farm Management](https://www.fao.org/farmer-field-schools/en/) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) - [WOAH (World Organisation for Animal Health)](https://www.woah.org/en/home/) > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.