# [Livestock Handling Facility Design](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-handling-facility-design-chute-alley-crowd-pen) and Flow


## Key Takeaways

- Facility design must prioritize species-specific movement behavior, leveraging the flight zone and point of balance to facilitate forward movement without undue stress. Curved races with wide radii (e.g., 3.5m for cattle) and straight entrances/exits encourage natural flow, while avoiding sharp turns, shadows, and contrasting light or noise reduces animal agitation and bruising.
- Non-slip footing is paramount for safety and welfare, with grooved concrete (10-20mm grooves, 75-100mm spacing) or rubber matting recommended for races, forcing pens, and ramps to prevent falls and panic. Loading ramps should have a maximum angle of 20 degrees and solid sides to block lateral vision, with adjustable height for seamless truck integration.
- Regular, documented maintenance is critical to prevent structural defects such as protruding bolts, sharp edges, or worn footing, which can cause injury and impede flow. Welfare reviews, utilizing indicators like vocalization, falling, and balking, should be conducted annually to assess design and management effectiveness, with data used to identify and rectify design flaws.
- Biosecurity is integrated into handling facility design through smooth, non-porous surfaces for easy cleaning, separation of clean and dirty flow paths, and containment of waste. Designated isolation areas with separate drainage and appropriate disinfection protocols (e.g., footbaths) are essential for managing potentially infected animals and preventing disease transmission.
- Observation points, such as elevated walkways or side windows, are crucial for handlers to monitor animal condition (gait, respiration, coat) without causing disturbance, enabling timely intervention for health issues or stress. Facilities should also accommodate veterinary procedures with dedicated chutes or squeeze restrainers that ensure safe access to animals.

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[Livestock handling facility design](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-handling-facility-design-chute-alley-crowd-pen) must be centred on the movement behaviour of the target species. Animals move more readily when they can see a clear path, avoid perceived threats, and maintain social contact. Facilities that force sudden turns, create shadows or contrasts, or allow noise and distraction increase stress and bruising. Planning should begin with an understanding of the species-specific flight zone and point of balance, and then extend to every component of the race, forcing pen, loading ramp, and holding area.

### At a Glance

| Design Element | Core Consideration |
|---------------|-------------------|
| Movement behaviour | Use flight zone and point of balance to guide forward movement without prodding. [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) |
| Race and gate planning | Curved races that are straight at the entrance and exit, gates that open fully and swing freely. [PubMed record 40867088 on handling and bruising](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40867088/) |
| Footing | Non,slip surfaces (grooved concrete, rubber belting) in races, forcing pens, and ramps. [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) |
| Loading ramp | Angle ≤ 20 degrees, solid sides to block lateral vision, adjustable height for different truck decks. [Transportation of Cattle](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/33745281896) |
| Observation points | Elevated walkways or viewing platforms that do not startle animals, good lighting for handlers. [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) |
| Maintenance | Regular inspection for protruding bolts, sharp edges, broken gates, immediate repair. [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) |
| Welfare review | Systematic audit of handling outcomes (vocalisation, falling, bruising) at least annually. [PubMed record 32026929 on welfare assessment](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32026929/) |

### System Context

A handling facility does not operate in isolation. It is part of a production system that includes pasture or feedlot management, transport scheduling, and slaughter or market procedures. The design must match the expected throughput, the species and breed temperament, and the climate. Facilities in extensive systems may be used only a few times a year and must be robust enough to withstand weather and inactivity. [PubMed record 28724483 on extensive farming](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28724483/) highlights that infrequent use can lead to animals being unfamiliar with the race, which increases the need for consistent design that does not change between events. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) provides national benchmarks for facility prevalence and handling practices, though local variation is common. Veterinarians and producers should conduct a site,specific risk assessment before adopting a generic plan.

### Planning Decisions

Initial layout determines whether flow is efficient or impeded. A straight race that forces animals into direct confrontation with a handler or a closed gate typically causes balking. Curved races that are straight at the entrance and exit allow animals to see only short distances and encourage forward movement. The curve radius should be wide enough that the inner and outer arcs do not differ greatly in length, a radius of 3,5 m is often used in cattle races, but no universal threshold exists because species and individual temperament vary. [Influence of the design of facilities at auction markets and animal handling procedures on bruising in cattle](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0037096084) documents that poorly placed gates and sharp turns are associated with more bruised carcasses. Gates should swing in the direction of flow and be able to open fully so they do not create a visual barrier. All metal edges should be rounded or covered to prevent cuts.

### Core Management Framework

Design alone does not guarantee good welfare. The framework for managing animals in the facility includes trained handlers who recognise early signs of agitation, consistent lighting that does not cast moving shadows, and a clear standard operating procedure for each task. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) emphasises that low,stress handling techniques reduce the need for electric prods and improve both animal welfare and meat quality. Regular maintenance checks should be recorded and any structural defect (e.g., worn footing, broken latch) corrected promptly. The [recommended biocontainment features for research and diagnostic facilities](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0029367822) also apply to commercial livestock facilities when disease risk is high: smooth non,porous surfaces that can be cleaned, separation of clean and dirty flow paths, and containment of waste. A welfare review using indicators such as the number of animals that fall, vocalise during handling, or refuse to move after three seconds of encouragement provides a practical measure of design and management effectiveness. [PubMed record 27695806 on welfare indicators](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27695806/) confirms that these outcomes correlate with facility design flaws. When thresholds for acceptable performance are unclear, veterinarians should escalate to peer,reviewed literature or consult with national animal health authorities.

## Movement Behavior and Facility Design

Livestock movement behavior is the foundation of efficient handling facility design. Cattle and other ungulates exhibit a strong tendency to move from darker areas toward lighter areas, to follow the lead of conspecifics, and to balk at sudden contrasts in flooring, light, or noise. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) notes that animals are less stressed when facilities allow them to move in a continuous arc instead of through sharp turns. Curved races (lanes) with solid sides reduce the animal’s ability to see ahead, which encourages forward movement without hesitation. The internal radius of a curved race should be sufficient to permit the handler to see the animal’s body from the outside while the animal focuses on the animal ahead. Multiple sources confirm that a single-file race 60,75 cm wide for mature cattle prevents turning yet does not restrict breathing or cause shoulder abrasion if properly maintained.

Race and gate planning must account for the intended throughput and the temperament of the livestock. Gate placement at junctions (for sorting, holding, or separating sick animals) should be either sliding or outward-opening so that a balking animal is not jammed against a gate edge. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) guidance emphasizes that stop,gates or back,gates placed at intervals in the race prevent an animal from backing up and allow handlers to release pressure on the rear animal without causing a pile,up. For extensive farming systems, portable handling units with hinged gates and adjustable width panels may be more practical than permanent installations, especially where herds are rotated among paddocks.

## Footing, Flooring, and Surface Conditions

Footing is a critical safety factor for both animals and handlers. Slippery floors cause falls, bruising, and panic, which can halt movement for extended periods. Concrete floors should be scored or grooved in a diamond pattern with grooves 10,20 mm wide and 10,15 mm deep, spaced at approximately 75,100 mm intervals. Rubber matting or textured epoxy coatings are alternatives in loading ramps and races where livestock are moved daily. The [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) guidelines recommend that flooring surfaces be inspected weekly for cracks, raised edges, or worn areas that could cause hoof injury. In holding pens that adjoin handling facilities, drainage slope of 2,3% away from the handling area prevents accumulation of urine and manure, which contributes to slippery conditions and increased ammonia levels.

For loading ramps, the angle should not exceed 20 degrees from horizontal for cattle, sheep and goats may tolerate slightly steeper slopes but with no more than a 15,degree inclination for solo movement. Cross,sectional width of the ramp must match the race width, and side rails should extend at least 1.2 m above the ramp floor to prevent jumping. A non,slip surface can be achieved with cleats or cross,bars spaced at 30 cm intervals, with cleat height of at least 20 mm.

## Loading Facilities and Transport Considerations

The design of loading areas directly influences welfare and product quality. Bruising, dark,cutting meat, and increased cortisol levels are associated with poor loading ramp design and aggressive handling. In one study examining bruising incidence at auction markets, the presence of non,slip flooring, properly adjusted prods, and covered races reduced bruises by over 40% compared to facilities with bare concrete and no solid sides. The [Transportation of Cattle](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/33745281896) review notes that a loading chute with a gradual slope and a clear view of the truck interior reduces hesitation and the need for electric prods. A solid,sided leading chute that matches the height of the truck floor eliminates the animal’s perception of a drop,off. The [influence of land transport on animal welfare in extensive farming systems](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/67649124285) emphasizes that pre,transport handling facilities should provide access to water and shade, with holding time not exceeding recommended durations (specific thresholds depend on local climate and species, producers should consult their veterinarian).

## Observation Points and Handler Positioning

Facility design must include observation points that allow handlers to assess animal movement without entering the race or pen. A raised catwalk or platform along the outside of a curved race gives the handler a clear view of the tail,to,head line. The [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) recommends that handling facilities be designed so that animals are never moved faster than a steady walk, which is only possible if the handler can see the entire group and stop movement promptly when an animal lies down or becomes stressed. In large feedlot or dairy operations, a central handling complex with multiple converging races can reduce travel distances and improve observation. However, convergence points must be designed with a clear line of sight to prevent collisions and allow sorting.

## Maintenance and Failure Patterns

Handling facilities degrade over time, and common failure patterns include gate latches that become stiff, hinges that sag, and race walls that develop protruding bolts or splintered wood. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) indicates that facility maintenance deficiencies are a frequent finding in audits of cattle feeding and dairy operations. Specific failure points to monitor include:

- **Crowd pen funnels:** The funnel should taper gradually (no more than a 20,30° angle) from the holding pen to the single,file race. A sudden narrowing creates a blockage point.
- **Swinging gates:** Gates that drag on the ground or that do not close flush against a stop cause animals to hesitate and may trap a limb.
- **Loading ramp transition:** The interface between the ramp and the truck floor must have a maximum gap of 5 cm, larger gaps cause foot injuries and falling.

Routine inspection should include checking the condition of all hinges, latches, and floor surfaces at least monthly, more often during periods of high throughput (e.g., weaning season, pre,slaughter). A written maintenance log with dates of inspection and corrective actions is recommended.

## Welfare Review and Practical Monitoring

Welfare assessment during handling can be conducted using behavioral indicators: vocalization, kicking, backing up, and falling. The [review of passive radio frequency identification systems for animal monitoring](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/85071906412) notes that automated monitoring of movement through races can flag episodes of prolonged balking or repeated retreat. While such technology is not yet widely implemented on smaller farms, manual scoring of a sample of animals (e.g., 20 per 100 head) can provide reliable data for benchmarking. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) resources suggest that welfare review should be part of a standard operating procedure for any facility that handles livestock more than once a week.

Worker safety is directly affected by facility design: gates should latch securely, floors must be non,slip, and escape routes for handlers should be present in every pen. The [recommended biocontainment features for research and diagnostic facilities where animal pathogens are used](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0029367822) extend to livestock handling: any facility that handles sick or potentially infected animals should have separate entry and exit gates, a foot,bath at the exit, and a clear separation between clean and dirty areas.

## Production,Stage Decisions and Records

Facility design should be tailored to the production stage. For cow,calf operations, handling cow,calf pairs requires wider races to accommodate cows with calves at side, and sorting gates must be capable of separating pairs efficiently. For backgrounding feedlots, the facility must manage high throughput of naive animals that are often nervous, a pre,handling holding pen with fresh water and minimal noise reduces stress. In dairy systems, a low,stress handling facility near the milking parlor prevents mixing of freshly milked cows with dry cows.

Records of handling incidents,bruises, injuries, or escapes,should be maintained and reviewed quarterly. Patterns of injury (e.g., repeated bruising on the right hip) may indicate a flaw in a specific gate or a turn radius that is too tight. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) data sets can serve as a benchmark for individual operations.

## Nutrition and Water Access

While the primary function of handling facilities is movement, prolonged holding periods require access to water. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) guidelines state that any holding pen where animals are kept for more than 4 hours must have a clean water supply. Water troughs should be placed at the far end of the pen to encourage movement toward the exit, but they must be positioned so that they do not create a dead,end. Feed provision is rarely necessary for short handling episodes (under 2 hours), but for presale holding yards (up to 24 hours), a balanced ration should be available to avoid hunger and metabolic disturbance.

## Worker and [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Integration

Food safety starts at the handling facility. Contamination with manure during loading or moving can lead to carcass contamination at slaughter. Therefore, facilities should be designed for easy cleaning: smooth, non,porous surfaces that can be hosed down, with floor drains and no sharp corners where organic matter collects. The [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) materials highlight that a clean facility is also a biosecure facility. Any operation that handles sick or injured animals separately must have a dedicated isolation lane with separate drainage to prevent mixing of runoff.

When design changes are considered, the producer should consult with a veterinary livestock handling specialist or an extension engineer familiar with local regulations. Uncertainty about optimal gate placement or ramp angle can be resolved by building a mock,up and observing animal behavior before permanent construction. The goal of facility design is to minimize stress on animals, reduce injury to workers, and produce a safe, high,quality product.

### Health Observation and Biosecurity Considerations

Observation points integrated into race and handling areas allow stockpersons to assess animal condition without causing additional disturbance. Elevated walkways or side-windows positioned along straight races enable visual inspection of gait, coat condition, respiration, and ocular or nasal discharge. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) guidance notes that such fixed observation locations reduce the need to stop the flow of animals and can be combined with weighing platforms or radio-frequency identification readers for automated health screening. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) recommends that facilities include a designated inspection area, often a short holding pen adjacent to the race, where animals can be separated for closer examination without disrupting the main movement line.

Biosecurity begins with facility layout that separates clean and contaminated zones. The [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) specifies that handling facilities should allow for one-way flow of animals from lower-risk to higher-risk areas, minimizing cross-contact between groups. Drainage slopes away from handling areas, non-porous flooring materials, and wash-down-capable surfaces (e.g., sealed concrete) are essential for cleaning and disinfection between batches. Research on biocontainment features for livestock diagnostic facilities (see [Recommended biocontainment features for research and diagnostic facilities where animal pathogens are used](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42304506/)) emphasizes that holding pens should be designed with separate drainage and impervious walls to contain potential contaminants. Footbaths, hand-washing stations, and dedicated loading areas for sick animals are additional components that reduce disease spread. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) advises that facility maintenance schedules include routine inspection of floor surfaces, gate latches, and drainage to prevent accumulation of organic matter that can harbor pathogens.

### Diagnostic and Veterinary Escalation

Facilities must accommodate veterinary procedures such as vaccination, blood sampling, and individual examination without causing excessive stress. A dedicated chute or squeeze restrainer with head gate positioned at the end of a single-file race allows safe access to the animal’s neck and hindquarters. The [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) resources recommend that such restraining devices include anti-slip flooring and cushioned side panels to prevent injury. When designing for potential disease outbreaks, the facility should include a separate isolation pen with independent ventilation and drainage, as outlined in the [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/). This pen should be positioned downwind and at least 10 meters from main handling areas to reduce aerosol transmission.

Escalation protocols depend on the animal’s condition. If an animal exhibits signs of severe lameness, respiratory distress, or neurological disorder, it should be moved via a dedicated isolation lane to a quiet treatment area. The [Influence of the design of facilities at auction markets and animal handling procedures on bruising in cattle](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40867088/) study demonstrates that poor facility design (sharp corners, slippery floors, inadequate lighting) directly increases the incidence of bruising and stress-related injury. Veterinary oversight during facility design can help identify such risks. Producers should have a written agreement with a licensed veterinarian to guide decisions on when to treat, isolate, or euthanize animals on site. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) materials note that timely veterinary escalation is improved when handling systems allow easy loading of compromised animals onto a trailer for transport to a clinic without forcing them through the main race.

### Uncertainty and Sustainability

Design guidance for livestock handling facilities is derived largely from empirical observation and controlled studies in temperate, intensive systems. Uncertainty remains regarding the transferability of specific dimensions and materials to extensive or tropical environments where animal behavior may differ. The [Transportation of Cattle](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/33745281896) review (2006) and the [influence of land transport on animal welfare in extensive farming systems](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/67649124285) (2009) both highlight that factors such as breed, previous handling experience, and ambient temperature modify the effectiveness of design standards. Therefore, facilities should be tested with a small cohort of animals before full implementation, and adjustments should be documented and shared with extension services.

Sustainability in livestock handling facility design encompasses material longevity, energy efficiency, and reduction of animal waste. Durable galvanized steel or high-density polyethylene for gates and races reduces replacement frequency. Concrete or rubber-matted floors with good traction minimize bedding use and cleaning water volume. The [review of passive radio frequency identification systems for animal monitoring](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32026929/) (2019) suggests that electronic identification can reduce the need for repeated handling, lowering stress and labor. Producers should also consider how facility layout can support rotational grazing or managed manure collection. The USDA APHIS guidelines note that designing for easy cleaning and rapid drying extends the usable life of the facility and lowers the risk of environmental contamination.

## Frequently Asked Questions

1. **How often should observation points be used during routine handling?**
   Observation should occur each time animals pass through the race, even a brief visual check can detect early signs of disease or injury. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) recommends including a defined inspection step in standard operating procedures.

2. **What is the most important biosecurity feature for a handling facility?**
   Separation of clean and contaminated areas through one-way animal flow and dedicated drainage systems. The [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) provides detailed design criteria for such separation.

3. **Can existing facilities be retrofitted for better health monitoring?**
   Yes. Adding side windows, catwalks, or video cameras to existing races can improve observation without structural changes. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) describes low-cost modifications such as lighting adjustments.

4. **How should a facility be designed for safe veterinary blood sampling?**
   A single-file race leading to a squeeze chute with a head gate allows the veterinarian to access the jugular vein. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) materials recommend that the chute floor be non-slip and that side panels allow manual restraint if needed.

5. **What should be done if an animal becomes acutely ill during handling?**
   Stop the flow, move the animal to a designated isolation pen or loading area, and contact a veterinarian. The [Influence of the design of facilities at auction markets and animal handling procedures on bruising in cattle](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40867088/) study stresses that sudden movements or forcing can worsen injury.

6. **Is there a standard width for the isolation lane?**
   No single standard exists because animal size varies. A lane should be wide enough to allow single-file movement but narrow enough to prevent turning. The [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) advises that dimensions be based on the largest expected breed.

7. **How can facilities reduce the environmental impact of cleaning?**
   Use sealed concrete floors with a smooth finish to reduce water absorption and allow high-pressure washing. The [Recommended biocontainment features for research and diagnostic facilities](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42304506/) (1995) suggests channeling runoff into a containment system.

8. **What role does radio-frequency identification play in health observation?**
   RFID systems can automatically record animal identity, weight, and time through a handling point, allowing correlation with later health data. The [review of passive radio frequency identification systems](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32026929/) (2019) notes that this reduces the need for manual restraint.

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*Educational veterinary notice: This content is intended for livestock managers and animal health professionals. Facility design should always be developed in consultation with a licensed veterinarian and local agricultural extension services to account for regional disease risks, [animal breeds](/blog/animals-general-knowledge/animal-breeds-guide), and regulatory requirements. No specific dimensional or material recommendations in this article replace professional veterinary or engineering judgment.*

## Related Farming Guides

- [How To Write A Farm Biosecurity Plan](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/how-to-write-a-farm-biosecurity-plan)
- [Livestock Farm Record Keeping System](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-farm-record-keeping-system)
- [Livestock Emergency Preparedness Plan](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-emergency-preparedness-plan)
- [Farm Health Intelligence Observation Records Biosecurity Diagnostics And Veterinary Escalation](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/farm-health-intelligence-observation-records-biosecurity-diagnostics-and-veterinary-escalation)
- [Animal Welfare Audits Building A Useful Farm Program](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/animal-welfare-audits-building-a-useful-farm-program)

## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

* [Animal Welfare Audits: Building a Useful Farm Program](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/animal-welfare-audits-building-a-useful-farm-program)
* [Total Mixed Ration (TMR) for Dairy: Mixing and Feeding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/total-mixed-ration-dairy-mixing-feeding)
* [Feed Additives for Livestock: Probiotics, Enzymes, and More](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/feed-additives-livestock-probiotics-enzymes)


## References and Further Reading

- [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/)
- [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/)
- [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease)
- [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/)
- [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms)

> This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.