# Livestock [Feed Storage and Preservation](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/feed-storage-preservation-nutrient-loss): Hay, Silage, and Grain Management ## Key Takeaways - **Moisture content at baling is paramount for hay preservation:** For small square bales, target 15-18% moisture; for large round bales, 14-16%; and for large square bales, 12-16%. Exceeding these levels risks heating, mold, and spontaneous combustion, while baling too dry leads to leaf loss and reduced nutrient content. - **Silage density and oxygen exclusion are critical for preventing aerobic spoilage:** Aim for a minimum fresh weight density of 700 kg/m³ for corn silage and 600 kg/m³ for haylage, achieved through continuous packing in thin layers (6-8 inches) with heavy equipment. Immediate and effective sealing with oxygen-barrier plastic is essential to limit air penetration. - **Grain storage success hinges on moisture control and aeration:** Target moisture levels are 13-14% for corn and 12-13% for small grains for long-term storage. Aeration fans providing at least 0.1 cfm/bushel are necessary for cooling to 40-50°F, while 0.5-1.0 cfm/bushel is required for natural air drying. - **Proactive monitoring and management mitigate feed spoilage and nutrient loss:** Regular visual and sensory assessments, coupled with laboratory testing for dry matter, protein, fiber, minerals, and mycotoxins, inform ration adjustments. Maintaining detailed feed inventory records helps track losses and optimize feed utilization. - **Feed storage presents significant animal health and worker safety risks:** Moldy feed can cause mycotoxicosis and digestive issues in livestock, while hazards like silo gas and grain bin engulfment necessitate strict safety protocols and training for personnel. --- Livestock producers who store hay, silage, or grain face the ongoing challenge of maintaining feed quality while minimizing dry matter losses and spoilage. This article provides practical methods for storing and preserving livestock feed, including hay bale storage, silage pit management, and grain bin maintenance with spoilage prevention. The guidance applies to beef cattle, dairy cattle, sheep, and goat operations where conserved feed forms a significant portion of the ration. Proper storage directly affects feed nutrient retention, animal performance, and farm profitability. The USDA Economic Research Service provides ongoing analysis of farm economy factors including input costs and production efficiency that relate to feed management decisions [1]. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service offers technical guidance on agricultural practices including feed storage structures and runoff management [2]. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations addresses animal production systems and feed resource management globally [3]. ## At a Glance: Feed Storage Methods and Key Management Points | Feed Type | Primary Storage Method | Typical Dry Matter Loss Range | Critical Control Point | |-----------|----------------------|------------------------------|------------------------| | Hay (round bales) | Outdoor storage on well-drained ground, stacked or individually placed | 5-15% depending on weather exposure and bale density | Bale density, twine tension, and plastic wrap integrity for silage bales | | Hay (square bales) | Barn or covered storage, stacked with ventilation gaps | 2-8% under cover, 10-25% uncovered | Moisture content at baling (below 18% for small bales, below 16% for large bales) | | Silage (bunker or pit) | Horizontal silo with plastic cover and tire or gravel weight system | 8-20% depending on packing density, sealing speed, and face management | Packing density (target 700-800 kg/m³ fresh weight), oxygen exclusion, and feedout rate | | Grain (bin storage) | Metal or concrete bin with aeration system | 1-5% with proper moisture and temperature management | Moisture content at harvest (13-14% for corn, 12-13% for small grains), aeration schedule, and insect monitoring | ## Hay Storage: Principles and Practical Management ### Moisture Management at Baling The single most important decision affecting hay storage success is moisture content at the time of baling. Hay baled too wet will heat, mold, and may spontaneously combust. Hay baled too dry loses leaf material during handling, reducing protein content and palatability. For small square bales, target moisture between 15% and 18%. For large round bales, target moisture between 14% and 16%. For large square bales, target moisture between 12% and 16%. These ranges allow for safe storage without excessive leaf loss. Use a moisture tester calibrated for hay. Test multiple bales from different parts of the field because moisture varies with crop maturity, swath density, and time of day. Record moisture readings for each cutting and field. If moisture exceeds 20% for small bales or 18% for large bales, delay baling or use a hay preservative such as propionic acid applied at the baler. Follow the preservative manufacturer label rates exactly. Do not exceed labeled application rates. ### Bale Density and Shape Bale density affects how much water penetrates the bale during rain. Dense bales shed water better than loose bales. For round balers, maintain consistent ground speed and pickup settings to achieve uniform density. For square balers, adjust plunger speed and feed rate according to the operator manual. Record bale weights periodically using a bale scale or load cells on the loader. Target weights vary by crop and bale size, but consistent weight within a cutting indicates uniform density. Round bale shape matters for outdoor storage. Bales with flat ends and uniform diameter shed water more effectively than bales with domed ends or irregular shape. Adjust baler belts and tension according to the manufacturer specifications. Inspect bale shape during baling and correct problems immediately. ### Outdoor Storage Site Selection Select a storage site that is well-drained and slightly sloped (2-4% grade) to prevent water pooling around bales. Remove vegetation and grade the area if necessary. A gravel base of 4-6 inches depth reduces ground moisture wicking into bales. Orient rows of round bales north-south to maximize sun exposure on both sides, which speeds drying after rain. For round bales stored outdoors without cover, space bales 2-3 feet apart in rows to allow air circulation and reduce moisture trapping between bales. Do not stack round bales more than two high unless they are wrapped in plastic. For stacked round bales, place the top bale in the gap between two bottom bales (pyramid style) for stability. ### Covered Storage Options Barn storage for hay reduces dry matter loss by 50-75% compared to uncovered outdoor storage. If a full barn is not available, consider these partial cover options: - Hay tarps or covers designed for agricultural use. Secure tarps with straps or tire sidewalls to prevent wind damage. Inspect tarps after storms for tears and water pooling. - Pole barns with open sides for ventilation. Orient the open side away from prevailing winds and rain. - Hoop structures or high tunnels. These provide full coverage at lower cost than traditional barns. For small square bales stored in a barn, stack bales with ventilation gaps between stacks. Leave 6-12 inches between stacks and 18-24 inches between the stack and exterior walls. Do not stack bales directly against metal roofing or siding because condensation can wet the outer bales. ### Hay Storage Records Maintain a hay storage record for each cutting and field. Include: - Baling date and time of day - Moisture content at baling (average and range) - Bale weight (average and range) - Storage location and method (outdoor uncovered, outdoor covered, barn) - Date placed in storage - Date removed from storage - Visual condition at removal (mold presence, discoloration, rodent damage) - Estimated dry matter loss (based on weight change or visual assessment) ## Silage Pit and Bunker Management ### Pit Construction and Preparation Silage pits and bunkers require a concrete floor and walls for best results. If concrete is not available, use a compacted clay or gravel base with a plastic liner. The floor should slope 2-3% away from the feedout face to drain any seepage. Install drainage tile or a collection system for silage leachate, which has high biological oxygen demand and can pollute waterways. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service provides technical standards for silage storage structures and runoff control [2]. Pit dimensions should match the herd feedout rate. A general rule is to remove at least 6 inches per day from the exposed face during warm weather and 4 inches per day during cold weather. Calculate pit width based on daily feed requirement and face removal rate. For example, a herd consuming 2,000 kg of silage per day with a 6-inch daily face removal needs a pit width of approximately 16 feet (assuming 700 kg/m³ density and 10-foot silage height). ### Filling and Packing Pack silage in layers no thicker than 6-8 inches before compacting. Use a heavy tractor (minimum 1 ton per 10 tons per hour of fill rate) to pack continuously during filling. The goal is to achieve a density of at least 700 kg/m³ fresh weight for corn silage and 600 kg/m³ for haylage. Higher density reduces porosity and oxygen penetration, which limits spoilage. Measure packing density by taking core samples or using a density probe. Record density for each load or layer. If density falls below target, reduce layer thickness, increase packing time, or use a heavier tractor. The packing tractor should operate continuously during filling, not at the end of the day. ### Sealing and Covering Cover the silage pit immediately after filling is complete. Use oxygen-barrier plastic film (white on top, black on bottom) for best results. Place a second layer of standard plastic over the oxygen barrier for UV protection. Weight the plastic with tire sidewalls, gravel bags, or sand tubes placed close together (no more than 2 feet apart). The goal is to eliminate air gaps between the plastic and the silage surface. Record the date filling was completed and the date the pit was sealed. Inspect the cover weekly for tears, animal damage, or wind loosening. Repair any damage immediately with plastic tape or a patch of plastic weighted down. ### Face Management During Feedout The exposed silage face is the primary site of aerobic spoilage. Maintain a smooth, straight face by using a defacer or silage rake. Do not use the bucket of a loader to tear silage from the face because this creates an irregular surface that allows oxygen penetration. Remove silage from the entire face width each day, not from one section. Remove at least 4-6 inches from the face daily during cold weather and 6-8 inches during warm weather. If the feedout rate is too slow to maintain this removal depth, consider reducing the face width by covering part of the pit with plastic and removing it later. Alternatively, sell or trade silage to another operation to increase feedout rate. ### Silage Temperature Monitoring Monitor silage temperature at the face and 12-18 inches behind the face. Use a compost thermometer or a probe thermometer with a long stem. Temperature more than 10°F above ambient air temperature indicates active aerobic spoilage. If temperature exceeds 15°F above ambient, increase feedout rate, improve face management, or discard the affected silage. Record temperatures weekly and note any trends. If temperatures rise consistently, investigate the cause: slow feedout, poor face management, inadequate packing, or cover damage. ## Grain Bin Storage: Moisture, Aeration, and Pest Control ### Moisture Management at Harvest Grain moisture at harvest determines safe storage duration and drying requirements. For corn stored in bins, target moisture is 13-14% for long-term storage (more than 6 months) and 14-15% for short-term storage (less than 6 months). For small grains such as wheat and barley, target moisture is 12-13% for long-term storage. For soybeans, target moisture is 11-12%. Harvest at moisture levels that allow natural drying in the field or mechanical drying before storage. If grain is harvested above target moisture, dry it within 24-48 hours using a grain dryer or natural air drying with aeration. Do not store wet grain in the bin without drying because spoilage begins quickly. ### Bin Preparation Before Harvest Clean bins thoroughly before filling with new grain. Remove all old grain, dust, and debris from bin walls, floors, and aeration ducts. Sweep or vacuum the bin floor. Inspect for holes, rust, or damage that could allow moisture entry or pest access. Repair any damage before filling. Treat empty bins with an approved insecticide if pest history warrants. Follow label directions exactly. Apply insecticide to bin walls, floors, and aeration ducts. Allow the bin to ventilate before filling. Install aeration fans and ducts according to manufacturer specifications. Test aeration system operation before harvest. Ensure fans move air upward through the grain (suction mode) for cooling and downward (pressure mode) for drying. The aeration system should provide at least 0.1 cubic feet per minute per bushel for cooling and 0.5-1.0 cfm per bushel for natural air drying. ### Aeration Management Cool grain after harvest to stop insect activity and mold growth. The goal is to reduce grain temperature to 40-50°F for winter storage. Cool grain in stages as outdoor temperatures drop. Do not cool grain more than 10-15°F in a single aeration cycle because rapid cooling can cause moisture condensation in the bin. Run aeration fans when outdoor temperature is 10-15°F below grain temperature and relative humidity is below 70%. For natural air drying, run fans continuously until grain moisture reaches target, then switch to intermittent cooling. Monitor grain temperature using thermocouples or temperature cables placed in the bin. Place sensors at multiple depths and locations. Check temperatures weekly during the first month after harvest, then monthly during winter. If any sensor shows temperature rising more than 5°F above other sensors at the same depth, investigate for spoilage. ### Insect and Mold Monitoring Inspect grain monthly for insect activity. Use insect traps (probe traps or sticky traps) placed on the grain surface and in aeration ducts. Identify insects found and record numbers. Common storage insects include grain weevils, lesser grain borers, and Indian meal moths. If insect numbers exceed threshold levels (varies by species and region), consider aeration cooling, grain turning, or fumigation. Fumigation requires a certified applicator and strict safety protocols. Do not fumigate grain that will be fed within 30 days unless the fumigant label allows shorter intervals. Monitor for mold by inspecting grain surface and aeration ducts for visible mold growth. Musty or sour odors indicate mold activity. If mold is detected, remove affected grain and increase aeration. Test grain for mycotoxins if mold is widespread or if livestock consuming the grain show signs of feed refusal or illness. ### Grain Bin Safety Grain bins present serious safety hazards including engulfment, entrapment, and dust explosions. Never enter a grain bin without following these precautions: - Lock out and tag out all unloading equipment before entering. - Use a safety harness and lifeline attached to an anchor point outside the bin. - Have at least two people outside the bin who can assist in an emergency. - Do not enter a bin where grain is bridged or crusted. - Do not enter a bin while grain is being unloaded. - Use a dust mask or respirator if grain dust is present. If a worker becomes trapped in grain, stop all equipment immediately and call emergency services. Do not attempt rescue without proper training and equipment because untrained rescuers often become victims themselves. ## Common Failure Patterns in Feed Storage ### Hay Storage Failures The most common hay storage failure is baling at excessive moisture. Hay baled above 20% moisture will heat, causing protein damage (Maillard reaction), mold growth, and potential spontaneous combustion. Signs of heating include a sweet, tobacco-like odor, brown or black discoloration, and steam rising from the bale on cool mornings. Prevention: Test moisture frequently during baling. If moisture exceeds safe limits, stop baling and allow the crop to dry further. Use a hay preservative only as a backup, not as a substitute for proper drying. Another common failure is inadequate bale density. Loose bales absorb more water, lose more leaf material, and have higher dry matter loss. Prevention: Maintain baler adjustments per manufacturer specifications. Replace worn belts, chains, and pickup tines. ### Silage Storage Failures The most common silage storage failure is poor packing density. Low density allows oxygen to penetrate the silage mass, causing aerobic spoilage, heating, and dry matter loss. Signs of poor packing include visible air pockets in the silage face, temperature elevation, and mold growth in the top foot of the silage. Prevention: Pack in thin layers (6-8 inches), use a heavy tractor, and pack continuously during filling. Measure density and adjust practices if targets are not met. Another common failure is delayed sealing. Silage left uncovered for more than 24 hours after filling completion loses significant dry matter and nutrient value. Prevention: Have cover plastic and weights ready before filling begins. Seal the pit immediately after the last load is packed. ### Grain Storage Failures The most common grain storage failure is inadequate aeration. Grain stored at summer harvest temperatures will spoil within weeks if not cooled. Signs of inadequate aeration include hot spots in the bin, moisture migration to the top of the grain, and condensation on the bin roof. Prevention: Run aeration fans as soon as outdoor temperatures allow cooling. Monitor grain temperature weekly and respond to rising temperatures immediately. Another common failure is storing grain at excessive moisture. Grain stored above 15% moisture for corn or 13.5% for small grains will develop mold and may produce mycotoxins. Prevention: Dry grain to target moisture before storage. Test moisture at multiple points in the bin because moisture can vary. ## Feed Quality Assessment and Records ### Visual and Sensory Assessment Before feeding stored feed, conduct a visual and sensory assessment. Look for mold, discoloration, and foreign material. Smell for musty, sour, or fermented odors. For silage, a pleasant fermented smell (similar to vinegar or pickles) is normal. A putrid or rancid smell indicates spoilage. For hay, a fresh, sweet smell is normal. A musty or moldy smell indicates spoilage. For grain, inspect for insects, mold, and discoloration. Grain that is caked, crusted, or has a musty odor should be tested before feeding. ### Laboratory Testing Submit feed samples for laboratory analysis at least once per year, or more frequently if feed quality is variable. Test for: - Dry matter content - Crude protein - Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) - Acid detergent fiber (ADF) - Starch (for corn silage and grain) - Minerals (calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, potassium) - Mycotoxins if mold is present or if livestock show signs of feed-related illness Collect samples according to laboratory instructions. For hay, use a hay probe to collect cores from multiple bales. For silage, collect samples from the face after removing the spoiled surface layer. For grain, use a grain probe to collect samples from multiple locations in the bin. Record all laboratory results and compare to target values for your livestock class. Adjust rations based on actual feed analysis, not book values. ### Feed Inventory Records Maintain a feed inventory that tracks: - Feed type and source - Quantity stored (tons or bushels) - Storage location and method - Date stored - Estimated storage loss (based on weight change or visual assessment) - Date feeding begins - Date feeding ends - Quantity fed - Feed analysis results Use this inventory to plan feed purchases, adjust rations, and identify storage problems. If actual feed disappearance exceeds expected disappearance by more than 10%, investigate for spoilage, theft, or measurement errors. ## Welfare and Safety Context ### Animal Health Considerations Feed quality directly affects animal health and performance. Moldy feed can cause respiratory problems, digestive upset, and reduced feed intake. Mycotoxins produced by molds can cause liver damage, immune suppression, and reproductive problems. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare including feed-related health issues [4]. If livestock show signs of feed refusal, reduced intake, or illness after consuming stored feed, stop feeding the suspect feed immediately. Submit feed samples for mycotoxin analysis. Consult a veterinarian for diagnosis and treatment of affected animals. ### Worker Safety Feed storage presents several worker safety hazards: - Silo gas (nitrogen dioxide) produced during the first 3-6 weeks after silage filling. This gas is toxic and can cause fatal lung damage. Do not enter a silo or bunker silo during this period without proper ventilation and gas monitoring. - Grain bin engulfment as described above. - Falls from hay stacks or silage pits. - Equipment hazards from balers, choppers, and grain handling equipment. Develop written safety protocols for each feed storage operation. Train all workers on these protocols. Post emergency contact numbers near feed storage areas. ### Environmental Considerations Feed storage can affect the environment through runoff, odor, and greenhouse gas emissions. Silage leachate has high biological oxygen demand and can kill fish if it reaches waterways. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service provides guidance on agricultural waste management including silage leachate control [2]. Greenhouse gas emissions from feed production and storage include carbon dioxide from fuel use, methane from spoilage, and nitrous oxide from fertilizer. Research on net reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from feed additive use in California dairy cattle provides context for the role of feed management in overall farm emissions [8]. While this research focuses on feed additives, it highlights the connection between feed management and environmental outcomes. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Contact a feed specialist, extension agent, or veterinarian when: - Feed analysis shows mycotoxin levels above safe thresholds for your livestock class - More than 10% of stored feed shows visible mold or spoilage - Livestock show signs of feed-related illness (reduced intake, diarrhea, respiratory problems, reproductive issues) - Grain bin temperatures rise more than 10°F above ambient despite aeration - Silage face temperatures exceed 15°F above ambient - You suspect spontaneous combustion risk in hay (bales too hot to hold your hand on) - A worker is injured in a feed storage accident - You need assistance designing or modifying [feed storage facilities](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/feed-storage-facilities-silos-bins-sheds) The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service offers technical assistance for feed storage structure design and runoff control [2]. The Food and Agriculture Organization provides resources on animal feed management in different production systems [3]. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the ideal moisture content for baling hay for long-term storage? For small square bales, target 15-18% moisture. For large round bales, target 14-16% moisture. For large square bales, target 12-16% moisture. Hay baled above these ranges will heat and mold. Hay baled below these ranges will lose leaf material during handling. Test moisture with a calibrated moisture tester on multiple bales from different parts of the field. ### How often should I check silage temperature at the feedout face? Check silage temperature at the face and 12-18 inches behind the face at least weekly during feeding. Use a compost thermometer or long-stem probe thermometer. Temperature more than 10°F above ambient air temperature indicates active aerobic spoilage. If temperature exceeds 15°F above ambient, increase feedout rate or improve face management. ### What aeration fan capacity do I need for grain storage? For cooling grain, provide at least 0.1 cubic feet per minute per bushel. For natural air drying, provide 0.5-1.0 cfm per bushel. Fan capacity depends on bin diameter, grain depth, and desired airflow. Consult a grain storage specialist or extension engineer for specific recommendations based on your bin dimensions and climate. ### How can I tell if my hay bales are heating dangerously? Signs of dangerous heating include a sweet, tobacco-like odor, steam rising from bales on cool mornings, bales that are hot to the touch, and brown or black discoloration. If a bale is too hot to hold your hand on, it may be at risk of spontaneous combustion. Move hot bales away from buildings and other bales. Monitor temperature with a probe thermometer. If temperature exceeds 150°F, contact your local fire department. ### What is the minimum daily feedout rate for a silage pit? Remove at least 4-6 inches from the entire silage face daily during cold weather and 6-8 inches daily during warm weather. If your herd cannot consume silage at this rate, reduce the face width by covering part of the pit with plastic. A slower feedout rate allows oxygen to penetrate the face, causing spoilage and dry matter loss. ### Should I use a hay preservative on wet hay? Hay preservatives such as propionic acid can allow baling at slightly higher moisture levels (up to 25% for small bales, up to 22% for large bales). However, preservatives are not a substitute for proper drying. Follow the manufacturer label rates exactly. Preservatives work best when applied uniformly at the baler. They do not prevent heating in hay baled above recommended moisture ranges. ### How do I sample grain in a bin for moisture testing? Use a grain probe to collect samples from multiple locations and depths in the bin. Sample at least five locations: the center and four points midway between the center and the bin wall. At each location, sample at the top, middle, and bottom of the grain mass. Combine samples and test moisture using a calibrated moisture meter. Moisture can vary significantly within a bin, so multiple samples are essential. ### What should I do if I find mold in my stored feed? If mold is limited to a small area, remove the affected feed and discard it. Do not feed moldy feed to livestock because it can cause health problems. If mold is widespread, test the feed for mycotoxins before feeding. Consult a veterinarian if livestock have already consumed moldy feed and show signs of illness. Improve storage conditions to prevent future mold problems: reduce moisture, improve aeration, and seal storage structures. ## Related Farming Guides - [How to Make Silage: Step-by-Step Guide for Small Farms](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/how-to-make-silage) - [Management Intensive Grazing For Beef Cattle Principles And Implementation](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/management-intensive-grazing-for-beef-cattle-principles-and-implementation) - [Livestock Nutrition And Feed Management A Cross Species Decision Framework](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-nutrition-and-feed-management-a-cross-species-decision-framework) - [Carp Farming Pond Production Feeding And Harvest Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/carp-farming-pond-production-feeding-and-harvest-management) - [Shrimp Farming Biosecurity Water Management And Crop Observation](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/shrimp-farming-biosecurity-water-management-and-crop-observation) - [Catfish Farming Managing The Production Cycle From Stocking To Harvest](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/catfish-farming-managing-the-production-cycle-from-stocking-to-harvest) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Animal Welfare Audits: Building a Useful Farm Program](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/animal-welfare-audits-building-a-useful-farm-program) * [Total Mixed Ration (TMR) for Dairy: Mixing and Feeding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/total-mixed-ration-dairy-mixing-feeding) * [Feed Additives for Livestock: Probiotics, Enzymes, and More](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/feed-additives-livestock-probiotics-enzymes) ## References and Further Reading - [www.ers.usda.gov](https://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/farm-economy) - [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en) - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Impact of Farm Management Practices on Salmonella Occurrence at the Farm Level-A Blend of Traditional Methods and Artificial Intelligence.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41750866). Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 2026. - [Farmers' Risk Perception on Climate Change: Transhumance vs. Semi-Intensive Sheep Production Systems in Türkiye.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35953981). Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2022. - [Insights into the impact of manure on the environmental antibiotic residues and resistance pool.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36187968). Frontiers in microbiology, 2022. - [Net reductions in greenhouse gas emissions from feed additive use in California dairy cattle.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32946456). PloS one, 2020. - [Agricultural Production, FarmManagement, and Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Emissions: Lessons and PolicyDirections for Cameroon](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47875-9_8). Nutrition Sustainable Agriculture and Climate Change in Africa Issues and Innovative Strategies, 2020. - [Comparing the environmental performance of mixed and specialised dairy farms: The role of the system level analysed](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.02.074). Journal of Cleaner Production, 2016. - [Disaggregated greenhouse gas emission inventories from agriculture via a coupled economic-ecosystem model](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2005.08.024). Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 2006. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.