# Pasture Management for Dairy Cows: Grasses, Grazing, and Soil Health ## Key Takeaways - **Species Selection & Establishment:** Perennial ryegrass and tall fescue are primary choices for temperate and warmer climates, respectively; mixed swards with white clover enhance nitrogen fixation and feed quality. Proper establishment requires soil preparation (pH 6.0-6.5, lime 3-6 months prior), certified seed, and appropriate seeding rates, with spring or early autumn being optimal seeding times. - **Rotational Grazing Principles:** Effective rotational grazing mandates a 21-30 day rotation in spring and 30-45 days in summer, allowing grass to reach the 2-3 leaf stage before regrazing. Maintaining a post-grazing residual height of 4-5 cm is critical to protect root reserves and promote regrowth, preventing overgrazing which degrades sward density and encourages weed invasion. - **Soil Health & Fertility Management:** Regular soil testing (every 2-3 years, 10-15 cm depth) is essential for managing pH (target 6.0-6.5), phosphorus (15-25 ppm), and potassium (150-200 ppm). Nutrient management plans must account for removal rates (approx. 0.5 kg P, 1.5 kg K per tonne DM consumed) and manure return, with strategic nitrogen application and legume integration to reduce synthetic inputs. - **Pasture Condition Monitoring:** Monthly pasture condition scoring, assessing sward density, weed presence (<15%), and bare ground (<15%) on a 1-5 scale, is vital for identifying management issues. Rapid declines in score (e.g., from 4 to 2) necessitate investigation into causes like compaction, nutrient deficiency, or pest damage. - **Integrated Management & Risk Mitigation:** A weekly decision matrix integrating pre-grazing height, growth rate, and body condition score guides pasture allocation and supplementation to optimize milk production and cow health. Proactive management of risks such as bloat (avoiding hungry grazing on lush legumes) and grass tetany (magnesium supplementation) is crucial, with professional consultation advised for persistent health issues or declining pasture productivity. --- This article provides dairy farmers transitioning to or optimizing pasture-based systems with practical guidance on grass species selection, grazing strategies, soil fertility management, and pasture condition scoring. The focus is on concrete management decisions that support milk production, herd health, and long-term pasture productivity. ## At a Glance: Pasture Management Decision Framework | Management Area | Key Decision Point | Typical Observation Window | Primary Limitation | |-----------------|-------------------|---------------------------|-------------------| | Grass species selection | Choose perennial ryegrass, tall fescue, or mixed swards based on climate and soil type | First full growing season after establishment | No single species suits all environments, local adaptation trials are essential | | Grazing rotation frequency | Set rotation length based on grass growth stage (2-3 leaf stage for ryegrass) | 21-30 days in spring, 30-45 days in summer | Overgrazing below 4-5 cm residual height reduces regrowth and root reserves | | Soil fertility management | Apply lime, nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium based on soil test results | 6-12 months after amendment application | Soil test results are only as reliable as the sampling method, avoid sampling wet or compacted areas | | Pasture condition scoring | Assess sward density, weed presence, and bare ground monthly | Each grazing cycle | Scoring is subjective, train multiple observers to reduce bias | ## Grass Species Selection for Dairy Pastures Selecting the right grass species is the foundation of a productive pasture system. The choice depends on climate, soil type, and intended grazing management. Perennial ryegrass (*Lolium perenne*) is the most common choice for temperate dairy systems due to its high digestibility and rapid regrowth under rotational grazing. Tall fescue (*Festuca arundinacea*) offers better drought tolerance and persistence in warmer or drier regions. Mixed swards containing legumes such as white clover (*Trifolium repens*) can reduce nitrogen fertilizer requirements and improve feed quality. When establishing a new pasture, consider the following: - **Soil preparation**: Test soil pH and nutrient levels before seeding. Aim for pH 6.0-6.5 for most grasses. Apply lime if needed at least 3-6 months before seeding. - **Seed selection**: Use certified seed of varieties adapted to your region. Avoid bin-run seed that may contain weed seeds or low germination rates. - **Seeding rate**: Follow recommended rates for your chosen species. Over-seeding wastes seed and can lead to competition among seedlings. - **Establishment timing**: Spring or early autumn seeding is typical. Avoid seeding during hot, dry periods or when heavy rain is forecast. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) provides technical guides on pasture establishment and species selection for different regions. Consult your local NRCS office for site-specific recommendations. ## Grazing Strategies for Dairy Cows Rotational grazing is the most effective strategy for maintaining pasture quality and maximizing milk production from grazed grass. The principle is to allow grass to recover to the 2-3 leaf stage before regrazing, which typically takes 21-30 days in spring and 30-45 days in summer. This approach maintains higher feed quality and prevents overgrazing. ### Setting Up a Rotational Grazing System 1. **Divide the pasture into paddocks**: Use permanent or temporary fencing to create 8-12 paddocks. The number depends on herd size, pasture area, and desired rotation length. 2. **Determine stocking rate**: Calculate the number of cows per hectare based on pasture growth rate and target dry matter intake. A typical dairy cow consumes 12-18 kg of dry matter per day from pasture. 3. **Monitor grass height**: Use a rising plate meter or sward stick to measure pre-grazing height (typically 8-12 cm for ryegrass) and post-grazing residual (4-5 cm). Adjust rotation length based on growth rates. 4. **Adjust for season**: In spring, growth is rapid, so rotation length may be 21 days. In summer, growth slows, so extend rotation to 30-45 days or consider supplementing with conserved forage. Research on the effect of temperate or tropical pasture grazing state and grain-based concentrate allocation on dairy cattle production and behavior shows that grazing management directly influences milk yield and cow behavior. The study examined how pasture state (temperate vs. tropical) and concentrate allocation affect production outcomes. ### Common Grazing Mistakes - **Overgrazing**: Grazing below 4 cm residual height reduces leaf area for regrowth and depletes root reserves. This weakens the sward and encourages weed invasion. - **Underutilizing spring growth**: Allowing grass to become too tall (above 15 cm) reduces quality and leads to wastage. Use surplus paddocks for silage or hay. - **Inconsistent rotation length**: Varying rotation length without monitoring grass growth can lead to either overgrazing or underutilization. Keep records of grazing dates and grass heights. ## Soil Health and Fertility Management Soil health directly affects pasture productivity and cow health. Key soil properties to monitor include pH, organic matter, nutrient levels, and compaction. ### Soil Testing Protocol - **Sampling frequency**: Test soil every 2-3 years. More frequent testing is warranted if problems are suspected. - **Sampling depth**: Sample to 10-15 cm for pasture. Avoid sampling within 6 weeks of fertilizer application. - **Number of cores**: Take 15-20 cores per field and mix them to form a composite sample. Avoid areas near gates, water troughs, or manure piles. - **Laboratory analysis**: Request analysis for pH, phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and organic matter. Some labs offer micronutrient testing. ### Interpreting Soil Test Results | Soil Property | Target Range for Dairy Pasture | Common Amendment | |---------------|-------------------------------|------------------| | pH | 6.0-6.5 | Lime (calcium carbonate) | | Phosphorus (P) | 15-25 ppm (Bray P1) | Triple superphosphate or manure | | Potassium (K) | 150-200 ppm | Potassium chloride or manure | | Organic matter | 3-5% | Compost, manure, or cover crops | ### Nutrient Management Planning Develop a nutrient management plan that accounts for all nutrient sources, including fertilizer, manure, and legume nitrogen fixation. The NRCS provides guidance on nutrient management planning through its conservation planning process. Key steps include: 1. **Calculate nutrient removal**: A dairy cow grazing pasture removes approximately 0.5 kg of P and 1.5 kg of K per tonne of dry matter consumed. 2. **Account for manure nutrients**: Manure from grazing cows returns most nutrients to the pasture, but distribution is uneven. Use rotational grazing to improve manure distribution. 3. **Apply fertilizer strategically**: Apply nitrogen in split applications during the growing season. Apply P and K based on soil test results and removal rates. 4. **Use legumes to reduce nitrogen inputs**: White clover can fix 100-200 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year. Maintain clover content at 20-30% of sward dry matter. ## Pasture Condition Scoring Pasture condition scoring is a systematic method for assessing sward health and identifying management issues. Score each paddock monthly using a standardized scale. ### Scoring Criteria | Score | Sward Density | Weed Presence | Bare Ground | Management Implication | |-------|---------------|---------------|-------------|------------------------| | 5 | Dense, uniform sward | Less than 5% | Less than 5% | Excellent condition, maintain current management | | 4 | Mostly dense, some thin patches | 5-15% | 5-15% | Good condition, monitor for developing issues | | 3 | Moderate density, visible gaps | 15-30% | 15-30% | Fair condition, adjust grazing or fertility | | 2 | Thin sward, large gaps | 30-50% | 30-50% | Poor condition, consider renovation | | 1 | Very thin or bare | More than 50% | More than 50% | Very poor, renovate immediately | ### Recording Pasture Condition Keep a pasture condition log for each paddock. Record the date, score, and any observations such as weed species present, signs of compaction, or animal health issues. Use this data to track trends over time and identify paddocks that need attention. ## Records and Measurements Accurate records are essential for evaluating pasture management decisions. Maintain the following records: - **Grazing diary**: Record dates of grazing, pre- and post-grazing heights, and number of cows per paddock. - **Fertilizer and amendment applications**: Record type, rate, date, and method of application. - **Soil test results**: Keep all soil test reports with field identification and sampling dates. - **Pasture condition scores**: Monthly scores for each paddock. - **Milk production records**: Track milk yield per cow and per hectare to assess pasture contribution. - **Animal health records**: Note any cases of bloat, grass tetany, or lameness that may be linked to pasture management. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on nutritional management of dairy cows, including pasture-related health risks such as bloat and grass tetany. Consult this resource for detailed information on prevention and treatment. ## Common Failure Patterns in Pasture Management ### Overgrazing and Sward Degradation Overgrazing occurs when cows are allowed to graze below the recommended residual height. This reduces leaf area for photosynthesis, depletes root reserves, and weakens the sward. Over time, desirable grasses are replaced by weeds or bare ground. Signs of overgrazing include: - Sward height consistently below 4 cm after grazing - Increasing weed populations, especially thistles, docks, or buttercups - Bare patches that do not recover between grazing cycles - Reduced milk production per cow or per hectare ### Underutilization and Wastage Underutilization occurs when grass is allowed to grow too tall before grazing. This reduces feed quality and leads to wastage as cows trample or refuse to eat stemmy material. Signs of underutilization include: - Pre-grazing height consistently above 15 cm - Large amounts of rejected grass after grazing - Reduced milk production due to lower feed quality - Increased need for mechanical topping or mowing ### Soil Compaction Soil compaction reduces root growth, water infiltration, and nutrient uptake. It is caused by grazing on wet soils or using heavy machinery on pasture. Signs of compaction include: - Water ponding on the surface after rain - Poor grass growth in wheel tracks or gateways - Shallow root systems when digging up plants - Increased runoff and soil erosion ### Nutrient Imbalances Nutrient imbalances can reduce pasture growth and cause animal health problems. Common issues include: - **Nitrogen deficiency**: Pale green leaves, slow growth, reduced protein content - **Phosphorus deficiency**: Stunted growth, dark green or purple leaves, reduced root development - **Potassium deficiency**: Yellowing of leaf margins, weak stems, increased disease susceptibility - **Magnesium deficiency**: Grass tetany in cows, especially in spring on lush, low-magnesium pastures ## Welfare and Safety Context Pasture management directly affects dairy cow welfare. Key welfare considerations include: - **Access to clean water**: Provide water troughs in each paddock or ensure cows can return to a central water source. Check water quality and flow rates regularly. - **Shelter from extreme weather**: Provide shade in hot weather and windbreaks in cold weather. Trees, hedgerows, or artificial shelters can be used. - **Lameness prevention**: Maintain smooth, well-drained laneways to reduce hoof damage. Use mobility scoring to identify lame cows early. Research on modeling the economic impacts of mobility scores in dairy cows under Irish spring pasture-based management highlights the importance of lameness detection and management. - **Bloat prevention**: Avoid grazing lush, legume-[dominant](/blog/careers/dominant-definition-biology) pastures when cows are hungry. Provide access to dry hay or straw before turning onto high-risk pastures. - **Grass tetany prevention**: Apply magnesium supplements to pasture or provide magnesium boluses or licks during high-risk periods (spring and autumn). The Merck Veterinary Manual offers detailed information on these conditions and their management. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Consult a veterinarian, agronomist, or extension specialist when: - **Animal health problems persist**: If cases of bloat, grass tetany, or lameness do not respond to standard management changes, seek veterinary advice. - **Soil test results are abnormal**: If pH, P, or K levels are far outside target ranges, consult an agronomist for a tailored amendment plan. - **Pasture condition scores decline rapidly**: If a paddock drops from score 4 to score 2 within one season, investigate underlying causes such as compaction, nutrient deficiency, or pest damage. - **Milk production drops unexpectedly**: If milk yield per cow or per hectare declines without an obvious cause, review grazing records, feed quality, and animal health. - **Regulatory compliance is needed**: If you are subject to nutrient management regulations, consult with NRCS or your local extension office to ensure compliance. Research on risk factors associated with the welfare of grazing dairy cows in spring-calving, hybrid pasture-based systems identifies specific management practices that can increase or decrease welfare risks. Use this information to evaluate your own system. ## Grazing Management Decision Framework: Integrating Pasture Allocation, Supplementation, and Cow Condition Effective pasture management for dairy cows requires a structured decision framework that balances grass supply with herd demand while maintaining sward quality and animal health. This section provides a practical decision framework that integrates pasture allocation, concentrate supplementation, and cow body condition monitoring. The framework is designed to be used weekly during the grazing season and adjusted based on pasture growth rates, milk production targets, and cow condition scores. ### Pasture Allocation Decision Matrix The core of the framework is a decision matrix that uses pre-grazing grass height, estimated pasture growth rate, and cow body condition score to determine daily pasture allocation and concentrate supplementation levels. Use the following steps to apply the matrix: 1. **Measure pre-grazing grass height**: Use a rising plate meter or sward stick to measure grass height in the paddock to be grazed next. Record the average height from at least 20 random locations. 2. **Estimate pasture growth rate**: Calculate the average daily growth rate over the past 7-14 days by measuring grass height in a representative paddock that has not been grazed. Divide the height increase by the number of days since the last measurement. 3. **Assess cow body condition score**: Score a representative sample of the herd (at least 10 cows) using a 1-5 scale. Target body condition score for lactating dairy cows is 2.5-3.5, with lower scores indicating underconditioning and higher scores indicating overconditioning. 4. **Apply the decision matrix**: Use the table below to determine daily pasture allocation (kg dry matter per cow) and concentrate supplementation (kg per cow per day). | Pre-Grazing Height (cm) | Growth Rate (kg DM/ha/day) | Body Condition Score | Pasture Allocation (kg DM/cow/day) | Concentrate Supplement (kg/cow/day) | |-------------------------|----------------------------|----------------------|------------------------------------|--------------------------------------| | 8-10 | 30-50 | 2.5-3.0 | 12-14 | 2-4 | | 8-10 | 30-50 | 3.0-3.5 | 10-12 | 1-3 | | 10-12 | 50-70 | 2.5-3.0 | 14-16 | 1-3 | | 10-12 | 50-70 | 3.0-3.5 | 12-14 | 0-2 | | 12-15 | 70-90 | 2.5-3.0 | 16-18 | 0-2 | | 12-15 | 70-90 | 3.0-3.5 | 14-16 | 0-1 | | Below 8 | Below 30 | Any | 8-10 | 4-6 | | Above 15 | Above 90 | Any | 18-20 | 0 | The decision matrix is based on research examining the effect of temperate or tropical pasture grazing state and grain-based concentrate allocation on dairy cattle production and behavior. The study demonstrated that grazing management directly influences milk yield and cow behavior, with pasture allocation and concentrate levels needing adjustment based on sward conditions. ### Weekly Grazing Management Record Maintain a weekly record for each paddock or grazing group. Use the following template: | Date | Paddock ID | Pre-Grazing Height (cm) | Post-Grazing Residual (cm) | Cows per Hectare | Pasture Allocation (kg DM/cow) | Concentrate (kg/cow) | Body Condition Score (average) | Milk Yield (kg/cow/day) | Observations | |------|------------|-------------------------|----------------------------|------------------|-------------------------------|----------------------|-------------------------------|------------------------|--------------| | | | | | | | | | | | Record observations such as signs of bloat, lameness, or grass tetany. Note any weather events that may affect grazing, such as heavy rain or frost. Use this record to identify trends and adjust management proactively. ### Troubleshooting Common Grazing Problems Use the following troubleshooting guide when problems arise: **Problem: Milk yield drops despite adequate pasture allocation** - Check pasture quality: Measure neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and crude protein (CP) if possible. Low CP or high NDF indicates poor quality. - Assess cow health: Check for signs of lameness, mastitis, or metabolic disorders. Research on modeling the economic impacts of mobility scores in dairy cows under Irish spring pasture-based management highlights the economic importance of early lameness detection. - Review concentrate formulation: Ensure concentrate provides adequate energy and protein to complement pasture. **Problem: Cows are losing body condition** - Increase pasture allocation or concentrate supplementation using the decision matrix. - Check for internal parasites: Consult a veterinarian for fecal egg counts if condition loss is widespread. - Evaluate grazing rotation: Ensure rotation length allows adequate regrowth. Overgrazing reduces feed intake and condition. **Problem: Pasture growth is slowing** - Check soil moisture: If dry, consider irrigating or reducing stocking rate. - Review soil fertility: Test soil for pH, P, and K. Apply amendments as needed. - Assess sward composition: If weed content is high, consider renovation or spot treatment. **Problem: Cows are showing signs of bloat or grass tetany** - Immediate action: Remove cows from the paddock and provide access to dry hay or straw. - Prevention: Apply bloat prevention products or magnesium supplements as described in the Merck Veterinary Manual. - Long-term management: Adjust grazing rotation to avoid lush, legume-dominant pastures. Ensure adequate fiber in the diet. ### Professional Escalation Criteria for Grazing Problems Consult a veterinarian or agronomist when: - **Body condition loss persists**: If average body condition score drops below 2.5 despite increased feed allocation, seek veterinary advice to rule out disease or parasitism. - **Milk yield drops more than 10%**: If milk yield per cow drops more than 10% over two weeks without an obvious cause, review the entire feeding program and consult a nutritionist. - **Pasture growth fails to recover**: If pasture growth does not respond to fertilizer or irrigation within 4-6 weeks, consult an agronomist for soil and plant tissue testing. - **Animal health emergencies**: If cases of bloat, grass tetany, or lameness become frequent or severe, contact a veterinarian immediately. Research on risk factors associated with the welfare of grazing dairy cows in spring-calving, hybrid pasture-based systems identifies specific management practices that can increase or decrease welfare risks. Use this information to evaluate your own system and identify areas for improvement. ### Integrating the Framework with Existing Records The grazing management decision framework should be used alongside the pasture condition scoring system and soil fertility records described in other sections of this article. Weekly grazing records provide the data needed to make informed decisions about pasture allocation and supplementation. Monthly pasture condition scores identify paddocks that need renovation or fertility adjustments. Soil test results guide long-term nutrient management planning. By integrating these tools, dairy farmers can optimize pasture utilization, maintain cow condition, and achieve consistent milk production throughout the grazing season. The framework is adaptable to different farm sizes and grazing systems, from intensive rotational grazing to more extensive systems. Adjust the decision matrix thresholds based on local conditions and experience. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What are the best pasture grasses for dairy cows in temperate climates? Perennial ryegrass is the most widely recommended grass for temperate dairy pastures due to its high digestibility, rapid regrowth, and ability to withstand rotational grazing. Tall fescue is a good alternative for drier or warmer regions. Mixed swards containing white clover can improve feed quality and reduce nitrogen fertilizer needs. ### How do I choose the right cattle pasture seed for my farm? Select certified seed of varieties that are adapted to your climate and soil type. Consult your local NRCS office or extension service for variety trial results in your area. Consider factors such as winter hardiness, drought tolerance, disease resistance, and compatibility with your grazing system. ### What is rotational grazing for dairy cows and how do I implement it? Rotational grazing involves dividing the pasture into paddocks and moving cows to a fresh paddock every 1-3 days, allowing grazed paddocks to recover. Implement it by fencing off paddocks, calculating stocking rate, monitoring grass height, and adjusting rotation length based on growth rates. Start with 8-12 paddocks and adjust as needed. ### How often should I test my pasture soil? Test soil every 2-3 years. More frequent testing is warranted if you suspect nutrient deficiencies, are renovating a pasture, or are applying manure or fertilizer at high rates. Sample at the same time of year for consistency. ### What is pasture condition scoring and how do I use it? Pasture condition scoring is a systematic method for assessing sward density, weed presence, and bare ground on a scale of 1 to 5. Use it monthly to identify paddocks that need management changes. Record scores in a log to track trends over time. ### How do I prevent bloat in grazing dairy cows? Prevent bloat by avoiding grazing lush, legume-dominant pastures when cows are hungry. Provide access to dry hay or straw before turning onto high-risk pastures. Use bloat prevention products such as poloxalene blocks or feed additives. Monitor cows closely during high-risk periods. ### What is grass tetany and how do I prevent it? Grass tetany is a magnesium deficiency that occurs in cows grazing lush, fast-growing pastures, especially in spring. Prevent it by applying magnesium supplements to pasture, providing magnesium boluses or licks, or feeding a magnesium-rich mineral mix. Consult the Merck Veterinary Manual for detailed prevention and treatment protocols. ### When should I consult a professional about my pasture management? Consult a veterinarian if animal health problems persist despite management changes. Consult an agronomist if soil test results are abnormal or pasture condition scores decline rapidly. Consult NRCS or extension for regulatory compliance or conservation planning. ## Related Farming Guides - [Dairy Cow Cooling System Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-cooling-system-management) - [Dairy Cattle Farming Nutrition Housing Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cattle-farming-nutrition-housing-health-signals-and-herd-management) - [Calving Management For Beef Herds](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/calving-management-for-beef-herds) - [Beef Cattle Backgrounding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-backgrounding-management) - [Beef Cattle Manure Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-manure-management) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Evaluating Feed Additives for Dairy Cow Performance](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/evaluating-feed-additives-for-dairy-cow-performance) * [Dairy Barn Fire Safety: Design and Prevention Measures](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-barn-fire-safety-design-prevention) * [Dairy Cow Pregnancy Loss Records and Review](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-pregnancy-loss-records-and-review) ## References and Further Reading - [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [Historical Evolution of Cattle Management and Herd Health of Dairy Farms in OECD Countries.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35324853). Veterinary sciences, 2022. - [Modeling the economic impacts of mobility scores in dairy cows under Irish spring pasture-based management.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36460509). Journal of dairy science, 2023. - [A 100-Year Review: Lactating dairy cattle housing management.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29153173). Journal of dairy science, 2017. - [The use of hormonal treatments to improve the reproductive performance of lactating dairy cows in feedlot or pasture-based management systems.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15271476). Animal reproduction science, 2004. - [Risk factors associated with the welfare of grazing dairy cows in spring-calving, hybrid pasture-based systems.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35453091). Preventive [veterinary medicine](/blog/careers/veterinary-medicine-careers-from-clinical-practice-to-public-health), 2022. - [Factors influencing Ontario dairy veterinarians' management and care of down dairy cows.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40104545). Frontiers in [veterinary science](/blog/news/veterinary-science), 2025. - [The effect of temperate or tropical pasture grazing state and grain-based concentrate allocation on dairy cattle production and behavior](https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2017-13388). Journal of Dairy Science, 2018. - [Facial Recognition of Dairy Cattle Based on Improved Convolutional Neural Network∗](https://doi.org/10.1587/transinf.2022EDP7008). IEICE Transactions on Information and Systems, 2022. - [Automatic milking and grazing in dairy cattle: Effects on behaviour](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/85195764729). Automatic Milking A Better Understanding, 2023. - [Western Canadian dairy farmers' perspectives on the provision of outdoor access for dairy cows and on the perceptions of other stakeholders](https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2021-21237). Journal of Dairy Science, 2022. - [Possibility of dairy cattle management toward sufficiency economy concept by dairy cattle farmers in suphan Buri province](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/84940784164). Kasetsart Journal Social Sciences, 2015. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.