# Pasture-Based [Dairy Farming Systems](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-farming-systems-intensive-vs-extensive-production-models): Management and Transition ## Key Takeaways - Pasture-based dairy systems prioritize grazed pasture (≥70% of diet), typically achieving lower milk yields per cow (4,000-7,000 L/year) compared to confinement systems (8,000-12,000 L/year), but exhibit lower lameness prevalence and a reduced environmental footprint per kg of milk due to decreased manure storage and transport needs. - Transitioning to pasture-based systems necessitates careful genetic selection for cows suited to grass-based diets (e.g., crossbreeding with Jersey or New Zealand Friesian), implementation of rotational grazing infrastructure with water access in every paddock, and gradual adjustment of feeding strategies to match pasture availability. - Effective pasture allocation relies on measuring pre-grazing herbage mass (e.g., using a rising plate meter), determining target intake (15-20 kg DM/cow/day), calculating required area per cow, and adjusting for grazing efficiency (0.80-0.90), with post-grazing residual targets of 4-6 cm to optimize regrowth. - Key records for pasture-based systems include pasture measurements (herbage mass, growth rates), cow performance (milk yield, BCS, reproduction), health events (lameness, mastitis, parasite burden via fecal egg counts), and feed supplements, which are critical for informed management decisions and troubleshooting common issues like overgrazing or body condition loss. - Environmental benefits of pasture-based systems include lower greenhouse gas emissions per kg milk and improved soil health via rotational grazing, though land use per unit of milk may be higher; resilience factors include a diverse forage base and flexible stocking rates. - Professional consultation is advised for lameness prevalence exceeding 10%, BCS below 2.5 in >5% of cows, significant milk yield drops (>15%), or pasture growth rates below 8 tonnes DM/ha/year, indicating potential issues requiring specialized agronomic or veterinary intervention. --- This article compares pasture-based, hybrid, and confinement dairy systems, outlines practical transition steps, and details pasture allocation and grazing management for dairy farmers considering or currently using pasture-based systems. The focus is on concrete management decisions, record-keeping, and welfare considerations supported by peer-reviewed evidence. ## At a Glance: System Comparison | Feature | Pasture-Based | Hybrid (Compost Barn + Pasture) | Confinement (Free Stall) | |---------|---------------|--------------------------------|--------------------------| | Primary forage source | Grazed pasture (≥70% of diet) | Pasture + stored forages | Total mixed ration (TMR) | | Typical stocking rate (cows/ha) | 2.0-3.5 | 1.5-2.5 | 0.5-1.0 | | Milking frequency | Once or twice daily | Twice daily | Twice or three times daily | | Capital investment per cow | Lower (fencing, water) | Moderate (barn + pasture) | High (barn, equipment) | | Labor per cow per year | Higher (moving paddocks) | Moderate | Lower (mechanized feeding) | | Milk yield per cow per year | 4,000-7,000 L | 6,000-9,000 L | 8,000-12,000 L | | Lameness prevalence | Lower (reported in pasture-based NZ herds) | Variable | Higher | | Environmental footprint per kg milk | Lower (reduced manure storage) | Moderate | Higher (concentrated waste) | Sources: [1] USDA NRCS, [5] Prevalence of lameness on pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms: An observational study, Preventive [Veterinary Medicine](/blog/careers/veterinary-medicine-careers-from-clinical-practice-to-public-health), 2023, [11] Environmental Sustainability of Dairy Cattle in Pasture-Based Systems vs. Confined Systems, Sustainability Switzerland, 2025. ## System Definitions and Core Principles ### Pasture-Based Dairy Systems A pasture-based dairy system relies on grazed grass as the primary feed source for lactating cows. Cows harvest their own feed by grazing rotationally managed paddocks. The system typically involves seasonal calving (spring or autumn) to match peak lactation with peak pasture growth. Supplementation with conserved forages or concentrates is used to fill feed deficits during dry periods or winter. The core principle is maximizing the proportion of the diet from grazed pasture, which reduces feed costs and manure handling requirements. The FAO Animal Production and Health division recognizes pasture-based systems as a distinct production model with specific management needs [3]. ### Hybrid Systems Hybrid systems combine pasture access with a confinement area, often a compost-bedded pack barn or free stall barn. Cows may graze during the growing season and be housed during winter or dry periods. These systems allow farmers to capture the benefits of pasture while providing shelter from extreme weather and reducing soil damage during wet conditions. ### Confinement Systems Confinement systems keep cows housed year-round, with all feed delivered as TMR. These systems allow precise control over nutrition and manure management but require higher capital investment and generate more concentrated waste. The choice between systems depends on land availability, climate, labor, and market preferences. ## Transitioning from Confinement to Pasture-Based ### Step 1: Assess Land and Infrastructure Evaluate your land base for pasture suitability. Key factors include soil type, drainage, slope, and existing fencing. The USDA NRCS provides technical guidance on pasture establishment and water systems [1]. You need at least 0.4-0.8 hectares per cow for a pasture-based system, depending on rainfall and soil fertility. ### Step 2: Select Appropriate Genetics Pasture-based systems require cows that can efficiently convert grass into milk. High-yielding Holsteins selected for confinement may struggle with body condition loss and fertility on pasture. Consider crossbreeding with Jersey or New Zealand Friesian genetics. A 2021 review in Animal journal discusses genetic selection toward sustainable farming systems, noting that breeding goals must align with the production environment [10]. ### Step 3: Implement Rotational Grazing Infrastructure Install permanent or temporary fencing to create paddocks. Each paddock should provide 2-4 days of grazing. Water access in every paddock is essential. Plan laneways to minimize walking distance to the milking parlor. ### Step 4: Adjust Feeding and Supplementation Gradually reduce concentrate feeding while increasing pasture allowance. Monitor body condition score (BCS) and milk production during the transition. Supplement with conserved forage when pasture growth is insufficient. ### Step 5: Train Cows to Graze Cows accustomed to TMR may need time to learn to graze. Provide fresh pasture after milking and ensure adequate herbage height (8-12 cm) to encourage intake. Observe grazing behavior and adjust paddock size accordingly. ## Pasture Allocation and Grazing Management ### Determining Herbage Allowance Herbage allowance is the amount of pasture dry matter offered per cow per day. For lactating dairy cows, a typical allowance is 15-20 kg DM/cow/day, depending on pasture quality and cow requirements. Use a rising plate meter or pasture ruler to estimate herbage mass before grazing. ### Rotational Grazing Principles Rotational grazing involves moving cows to a fresh paddock after a short grazing period (12-24 hours) and allowing the grazed paddock to rest for 20-30 days. This rest period allows pasture regrowth and maintains plant vigor. The USDA NRCS recommends grazing to a residual height of 4-6 cm to optimize regrowth [1]. ### Pre-Grazing and Post-Grazing Targets | Pasture Growth Stage | Pre-Grazing Height (cm) | Post-Grazing Height (cm) | Rest Period (days) | |----------------------|------------------------|--------------------------|--------------------| | Spring (rapid growth) | 10-12 | 4-5 | 18-22 | | Summer (slower growth) | 12-15 | 5-6 | 25-35 | | Autumn (declining growth) | 8-10 | 4-5 | 30-40 | Source: [1] USDA NRCS. ### Managing Surplus and Deficit During periods of rapid spring growth, surplus pasture can be conserved as silage or hay. During summer dry spells, reduce stocking rate or supplement with stored forages. A pastoral simulation model can help predict cow performance based on genotype and environmental sensitivity, but such models require local calibration [14]. ## Records and Measurements ### Pasture Measurements Record pre-grazing and post-grazing herbage mass for each paddock. Use a rising plate meter calibrated to your pasture type. Track pasture growth rates weekly during the growing season. This data informs grazing rotation decisions and supplement needs. ### Cow Performance Records Track individual cow milk yield, body condition score, and reproductive status. A 2023 study in Journal of Dairy Science evaluated animal characteristics influencing lactation production efficiency in spring-calving, pasture-based dairy cattle [8]. Key records include: - Milk yield per cow per day - Milk fat and protein percentage - Body condition score (scale 1-5) - Calving interval - Days in milk ### Health and Welfare Records Record lameness events, mastitis cases, and metabolic disorders. A 2023 observational study in Preventive Veterinary Medicine reported lameness prevalence in pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms [5]. Track treatment dates, drugs used, and withdrawal periods. Maintain records of foot bathing and hoof trimming. ### Feed and Supplement Records Record type and amount of supplements fed daily. Calculate total dry matter intake from pasture plus supplements. Monitor feed costs per liter of milk produced. ## Common Failure Patterns ### Overgrazing Grazing below 4 cm residual height damages pasture root reserves and reduces regrowth. This leads to lower pasture production and increased weed invasion. Prevent by moving cows to fresh paddock before pasture is grazed too low. ### Underutilization of Spring Growth Failing to graze or conserve surplus spring pasture results in rank, low-quality feed. Cows selectively graze and waste more. Implement a paddock rotation that matches grazing pressure to growth rate. ### Body Condition Loss Cows on pasture may lose body condition during early lactation if energy intake is insufficient. Monitor BCS weekly and adjust supplement feeding. Cows with BCS below 2.5 require intervention. ### Lameness While pasture-based systems generally have lower lameness prevalence than confinement, lameness still occurs. A 2023 study in Preventive Veterinary Medicine examined lameness prevalence in pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms [5]. Common causes include long walking distances, stony laneways, and wet conditions. Maintain laneways and provide standing areas. ### Parasite Burden Pasture-based systems expose cows to internal parasites. A 2024 study in [Veterinary Parasitology](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/veterinary-pathology-microbiology/parasite-host-interactions-immune-evasion-and-pathology): Regional Studies and Reports reported faecal egg counts in Australian pasture-based dairy herds [6]. Implement a targeted deworming program based on faecal egg counts. ## Welfare and Safety Context ### Welfare Indicators The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare [4]. Key welfare indicators for pasture-based systems include: - Body condition score - Lameness prevalence - Mastitis incidence - Mortality rate - Access to shade and water A 2024 study in Journal of Dairy Science examined effects of wintering practices on behavioral and physiological indicators of welfare in nonlactating, pregnant dairy cattle in a pasture-based system [7]. Winter management significantly affects welfare outcomes. ### Worker Safety Pasture-based systems involve working with electric fencing, tractors, and livestock. Ensure all workers are trained in safe handling of cattle and equipment. Provide personal protective equipment for chemical handling. ### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Milk from pasture-based systems must meet the same food safety standards as confinement systems. Maintain clean milking equipment, proper cooling, and regular bulk tank testing. Record all treatments and observe withdrawal periods. ## Environmental Sustainability A 2025 study in Sustainability Switzerland compared environmental sustainability of dairy cattle in pasture-based versus confined systems [11]. Pasture-based systems generally have lower greenhouse gas emissions per kg of milk due to reduced manure storage and feed transport. However, they may have higher land use per unit of milk. Pasture-based systems contribute to soil health through rotational grazing, which improves organic matter and reduces erosion. The USDA NRCS provides conservation practice standards for prescribed grazing [1]. ## Resilience Factors A 2020 study in Agricultural Systems identified resilience factors of organic dairy cattle farms, many of which apply to pasture-based systems [12]. Key resilience factors include: - Diverse forage base - Flexible stocking rate - Low debt-to-asset ratio - Access to off-farm income - Strong social networks ## Bioeconomic Efficiency A 2026 study in Tropical Animal Health and Production examined bioeconomic efficiency of pasture-based production systems in the Pre-Amazon region of Maranhão [13]. Efficiency depends on pasture management, supplementation strategy, and reproductive performance. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Consult a veterinarian or animal nutritionist when: - Lameness prevalence exceeds 10% of the herd - Body condition score drops below 2.5 in more than 5% of cows - Milk yield drops more than 15% from expected - Calving interval exceeds 14 months - Faecal egg counts exceed treatment thresholds - Pasture growth rates decline unexpectedly Consult a pasture agronomist when: - Pasture production drops below 8 tonnes DM/ha/year - Weed invasion exceeds 20% of paddock area - Soil fertility tests show deficiencies - Pasture persistence declines after 3 years ## Practical Decision Framework for Pasture Allocation and Supplementation Managing pasture allocation and supplementation decisions requires a structured approach that accounts for daily variation in pasture growth, cow demand, and weather conditions. A practical decision framework helps farmers make consistent, evidence-based choices instead of reactive adjustments. This section presents a three-tier decision framework, a record system for tracking allocation decisions, and troubleshooting methods for common pasture management problems. ### Tier 1: Daily Pasture Allocation Decision Framework The daily pasture allocation decision involves determining how much area to allocate to the milking herd each day. This decision depends on herbage mass, cow numbers, target intake, and desired post-grazing residual. The following framework uses measurable inputs to produce a specific allocation. **Step 1: Measure pre-grazing herbage mass.** Use a rising plate meter or pasture ruler to estimate kg DM/ha in the paddock scheduled for grazing. Take at least 20 measurements across the paddock and calculate the average. The USDA NRCS recommends calibrating your plate meter to local pasture conditions at least twice per grazing season [1]. **Step 2: Determine target intake per cow.** For lactating dairy cows in a pasture-based system, target daily dry matter intake from pasture is typically 12-18 kg DM/cow/day, depending on milk yield, body condition, and supplement feeding. A 2023 study in Journal of Dairy Science evaluated animal characteristics influencing lactation production efficiency in spring-calving, pasture-based dairy cattle, noting that intake varies with genetic merit and stage of lactation [8]. Use your herd records to set a realistic target based on observed intake. **Step 3: Calculate required area per cow.** Divide target intake per cow (kg DM) by the available herbage mass (kg DM/ha) after accounting for the desired post-grazing residual. For example, if pre-grazing mass is 2500 kg DM/ha, target post-grazing residual is 1500 kg DM/ha, and target intake is 15 kg DM/cow, then available herbage is 1000 kg DM/ha (2500 minus 1500). Required area per cow is 15 divided by 1000, which equals 0.015 ha per cow. **Step 4: Calculate total paddock area needed.** Multiply required area per cow by the number of cows in the herd. For a 100-cow herd, total area needed is 1.5 ha (0.015 ha per cow times 100 cows). **Step 5: Adjust for grazing efficiency.** Cows waste some pasture through trampling, fouling, and selective grazing. Apply a grazing efficiency factor of 0.80 to 0.90, meaning you allocate 10-20% more area than the calculated requirement. For the example above, allocate 1.7 to 1.9 ha instead of 1.5 ha. **Step 6: Monitor post-grazing residual.** After cows leave the paddock, measure residual height or herbage mass. If residual is higher than target, reduce allocation area the next day. If residual is lower, increase allocation area. This feedback loop maintains pasture quality and regrowth potential. ### Tier 2: Weekly Supplementation Decision Framework Supplementation decisions depend on the gap between pasture supply and cow demand. The following framework uses pasture growth rate, herd demand, and body condition score trends to determine supplement type and amount. **Step 1: Calculate weekly pasture growth rate.** Measure herbage mass in exclusion cages or monitor growth rates from weekly pasture measurements. Growth rates vary seasonally, with peak rates of 60-80 kg DM/ha/day in spring and lower rates of 10-20 kg DM/ha/day in summer dry periods [1]. **Step 2: Calculate herd demand per week.** Multiply number of cows by target daily intake by 7 days. For 100 cows with target intake of 15 kg DM/cow/day, weekly demand is 10,500 kg DM (100 times 15 times 7). **Step 3: Calculate pasture supply per week.** Multiply grazed area per week by available herbage mass. If you graze 10 ha per week with available herbage of 1000 kg DM/ha, weekly pasture supply is 10,000 kg DM. **Step 4: Determine the feed deficit or surplus.** Subtract pasture supply from herd demand. In the example above, deficit is 500 kg DM per week (10,500 minus 10,000). This deficit must be filled with supplements. **Step 5: Choose supplement type based on deficit size and cow condition.** Small deficits (less than 2 kg DM/cow/day) can be filled with concentrate feeds such as grain or pellets. Larger deficits require conserved forages such as silage or hay. If body condition score is declining, increase energy density of supplements. A 2024 study in Journal of Dairy Science examined effects of wintering practices on welfare indicators in pasture-based systems, highlighting that nutritional management during deficit periods affects cow health and subsequent lactation performance [7]. **Step 6: Monitor response and adjust.** After implementing supplementation, monitor milk yield, body condition score, and pasture residuals. If milk yield drops more than 5% from expected, increase supplement amount or energy density. If body condition score drops below 2.5 in more than 5% of cows, consult a nutritionist. ### Tier 3: Seasonal Decision Framework Seasonal decisions involve adjusting stocking rate, calving pattern, and pasture conservation strategy to match the annual pasture growth curve. **Spring (rapid growth):** Focus on matching grazing pressure to growth rate. Use a rotation length of 18-22 days. Conserve surplus pasture as silage or hay when growth exceeds herd demand. A 2020 study in Agricultural Systems identified diverse forage base as a resilience factor for organic dairy farms, which applies to pasture-based systems managing spring surplus [12]. **Summer (slower growth):** Extend rotation length to 25-35 days. Reduce stocking rate by culling low-producing cows or moving dry cows to a sacrifice paddock. Supplement with conserved forages if pasture growth drops below 20 kg DM/ha/day. Monitor body condition score closely. **Autumn (declining growth):** Graze to a higher residual (5-6 cm) to build root reserves for winter. Consider applying nitrogen fertilizer to boost autumn growth if soil moisture is adequate. Plan winter feed requirements based on pasture growth forecasts. **Winter (dormant growth):** Use conserved forages as the primary feed source. Provide shelter from wind and rain. A 2024 study in Journal of Dairy Science examined effects of wintering practices on welfare indicators in nonlactating, pregnant dairy cattle in a pasture-based system, finding that winter management significantly affects physiological stress and behavior [7]. Ensure adequate dry matter intake to maintain body condition. ### Record System for Pasture Allocation Decisions A structured record system supports consistent decision-making and allows analysis of trends over time. The following records should be maintained for each grazing event. **Paddock Grazing Record** | Date | Paddock ID | Pre-grazing mass (kg DM/ha) | Post-grazing mass (kg DM/ha) | Area grazed (ha) | Cows grazed | Hours grazed | Supplement fed (kg DM/cow) | Notes | |------|------------|------------------------------|-------------------------------|------------------|-------------|--------------|---------------------------|-------| | 01/04/2025 | Paddock 3 | 2800 | 1600 | 1.8 | 100 | 24 | 2.0 kg grain | Wet conditions | **Weekly Pasture Growth Record** | Week ending | Paddock ID | Growth rate (kg DM/ha/day) | Rainfall (mm) | Temperature (C) | Notes | |-------------|------------|----------------------------|---------------|-----------------|-------| | 07/04/2025 | Paddock 3 | 45 | 15 | 12 | Good growth | **Monthly Herd Performance Summary** | Month | Average milk yield (L/cow/day) | Average BCS | Calving interval (months) | Lameness cases | Mastitis cases | Supplement cost per cow | |-------|-------------------------------|-------------|---------------------------|----------------|----------------|------------------------| | March 2025 | 22.5 | 3.0 | 13.2 | 3 | 2 | $45 | These records allow you to calculate pasture utilization efficiency (kg milk produced per kg pasture DM consumed) and identify trends that require management intervention. A 2023 study in Preventive Veterinary Medicine reported lameness prevalence in pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms, emphasizing the importance of health records for identifying risk factors [5]. ### Troubleshooting Common Pasture Allocation Problems **Problem: Post-grazing residual consistently too high (above 6 cm).** Possible causes: Overestimating pre-grazing mass, allocating too much area, or cows not consuming allocated pasture due to heat stress or poor palatability. Solution: Reduce allocation area by 10-15% and measure pre-grazing mass more accurately. Check water availability and shade in the paddock. **Problem: Post-grazing residual consistently too low (below 4 cm).** Possible causes: Underestimating pre-grazing mass, allocating too little area, or cows consuming more than expected due to low supplement feeding. Solution: Increase allocation area by 10-15% and increase supplement feeding if body condition is declining. Grazing below 4 cm damages pasture root reserves and reduces regrowth potential [1]. **Problem: Milk yield drops unexpectedly after moving to a new paddock.** Possible causes: Low herbage mass in the new paddock, poor pasture quality (high fiber, low energy), or cows not adapting to a new pasture species. Solution: Measure pre-grazing mass before moving cows. If herbage mass is below 2000 kg DM/ha, supplement with conserved forage. A 2019 study in Animals found that milk yield, milk composition, and nutritive value of feed accessed varies with milking order for pasture-based dairy cattle, suggesting that competition at grazing affects intake [9]. **Problem: Cows show signs of hunger or aggression at the paddock gate.** Possible causes: Insufficient pasture allocation, long grazing intervals, or low pasture quality. Solution: Increase allocation area or supplement feeding. Check that cows have access to water in the paddock. If behavior persists, consult a veterinarian or animal nutritionist. **Problem: Pasture growth rate declines unexpectedly.** Possible causes: Soil nutrient deficiency, drought stress, overgrazing in previous rotations, or pest damage. Solution: Test soil fertility and apply fertilizer as needed. Extend rotation length to allow longer regrowth periods. If growth rate drops below 10 kg DM/ha/day, consider reducing stocking rate or feeding more supplements. Consult a pasture agronomist if the problem persists. ### Welfare and Safety Context for Pasture Allocation Decisions Pasture allocation decisions directly affect cow welfare. Under-allocation leads to hunger, body condition loss, and increased competition. Over-allocation leads to pasture waste and reduced feed quality. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare, emphasizing that adequate nutrition is a fundamental welfare requirement [4]. Worker safety during pasture allocation involves operating vehicles and machinery on uneven terrain, handling electric fencing, and working with livestock. Ensure all workers are trained in safe operation of all-terrain vehicles, tractors, and fencing equipment. Provide personal protective equipment when handling chemicals for pasture management. ### Professional Escalation Criteria for Pasture Allocation Problems Consult a pasture agronomist or animal nutritionist when: - Pasture growth rate drops below 10 kg DM/ha/day for more than two consecutive weeks - Post-grazing residual consistently falls below 4 cm or exceeds 7 cm - Pasture utilization efficiency drops below 60% (kg milk per kg pasture DM) - Soil fertility tests show deficiencies that cannot be corrected with standard fertilizer applications - Weed invasion exceeds 20% of paddock area - Pasture persistence declines significantly after three years Consult a veterinarian when: - Body condition score drops below 2.5 in more than 5% of cows - Milk yield drops more than 15% from expected for more than one week - Lameness prevalence exceeds 10% of the herd - Cows show signs of metabolic disorders such as ketosis or hypocalcemia These escalation criteria ensure that problems are addressed before they cause significant economic or welfare losses. The FAO Animal Production and Health division emphasizes the importance of professional support for pasture-based dairy systems [3]. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the ideal stocking rate for a pasture-based dairy system? Stocking rate depends on pasture productivity, rainfall, and supplementation strategy. Typical rates range from 2.0 to 3.5 cows per hectare in temperate regions. Higher rates require more supplement feeding and increase risk of overgrazing. Consult the USDA NRCS for local recommendations [1]. ### How do I transition my herd from confinement to pasture-based grazing? Transition gradually over 2-4 weeks. Start by providing access to pasture for a few hours after milking, then increase time gradually. Monitor body condition and milk yield. Adjust supplement feeding to maintain energy intake. Select cows with good grazing behavior and fertility. ### What pasture species are best for dairy cows? Perennial ryegrass and white clover are the most common pasture species for dairy in temperate regions. Other options include tall fescue, orchardgrass, and red clover. Choose species adapted to your soil type and climate. The USDA NRCS provides species selection guidance [1]. ### How do I manage pasture during dry periods? Reduce stocking rate by culling low-producing cows or moving dry cows to a sacrifice paddock. Supplement with conserved forages. Consider irrigating if water is available. Graze to a higher residual height (6 cm) to protect plant roots. ### What are the main health risks in pasture-based dairy systems? Common health risks include lameness from long walking distances, internal parasites from grazing, and metabolic disorders from energy deficits. A 2023 study in Preventive Veterinary Medicine reported lameness prevalence in pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms [5]. A 2024 study in Veterinary Parasitology reported faecal egg counts in Australian pasture-based herds [6]. ### How do I measure pasture herbage mass? Use a rising plate meter calibrated to your pasture type. Take 20-30 measurements per paddock and calculate the average. Alternatively, use a pasture ruler and a calibration equation. Measure pre-grazing and post-grazing to calculate intake. ### Can I use pasture-based systems in hot climates? Yes, but provide shade and water in every paddock. Graze during cooler parts of the day. Use heat-tolerant breeds or crossbreeds. Adjust stocking rate to match pasture growth. The FAO Animal Production and Health division provides guidance on tropical pasture systems [3]. ### What records should I keep for pasture-based dairy farming? Keep records of pasture measurements (pre- and post-grazing height, growth rate), cow performance (milk yield, BCS, reproduction), health events (lameness, mastitis, treatments), and feed supplements. These records inform management decisions and support compliance with food safety standards. ## Related Farming Guides - [Dairy Cow Cooling System Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-cooling-system-management) - [Dairy Farm Manure Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-farm-manure-management) - [Transition Cow Management From Dry Off To Freshening](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/transition-cow-management-from-dry-off-to-freshening) - [Dairy Cattle Farming Nutrition Housing Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cattle-farming-nutrition-housing-health-signals-and-herd-management) - [Beef Cattle Farming Forage Reproduction Calving Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-farming-forage-reproduction-calving-health-signals-and-herd-management) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Evaluating Feed Additives for Dairy Cow Performance](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/evaluating-feed-additives-for-dairy-cow-performance) * [Dairy Barn Fire Safety: Design and Prevention Measures](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-barn-fire-safety-design-prevention) * [Dairy Cow Pregnancy Loss Records and Review](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-pregnancy-loss-records-and-review) ## References and Further Reading - [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Prevalence of lameness on pasture-based New Zealand dairy farms: An observational study.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37897942). Preventive veterinary medicine, 2023. - [Faecal egg counts in Australian pasture-based dairy herds.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38772650). Veterinary parasitology, regional studies and reports, 2024. - [Effects of 2 wintering practices on behavioral and physiological indicators of welfare of nonlactating, pregnant dairy cattle in a pasture-based system.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38642653). Journal of dairy science, 2024. - [An evaluation of detailed animal characteristics influencing the lactation production efficiency of spring-calving, pasture-based dairy cattle.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36526459). Journal of dairy science, 2023. - [Milk Yield, Milk Composition, and the Nutritive Value of Feed Accessed Varies with Milking Order for Pasture-Based Dairy Cattle.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30769892). Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2019. - [Review: Genetic selection of high-yielding dairy cattle toward sustainable farming systems in a rapidly changing world.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34294547). Animal : an international journal of animal bioscience, 2021. - [Environmental Sustainability of Dairy Cattle in Pasture-Based Systems vs. Confined Systems](https://doi.org/10.3390/su17093976). Sustainability Switzerland, 2025. - [Identification of resilience factors of organic dairy cattle farms](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102875). Agricultural Systems, 2020. - [Bioeconomic efficiency of pasture-based production systems in the dairy cattle chain of the Pre-Amazon region of Maranhão](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-026-05060-3). Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2026. - [Development and evaluation of a pastoral simulation model that predicts dairy cattle performance based on animal genotype and environmental sensitivity information](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2007.10.007). Agricultural Systems, 2008. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.