# Dairy [Feed Bunk Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/feedlot-feed-bunk-management-reading-adjusting-intake) and Feed Refusals ## Key Takeaways - **Systematic Bunk Management is Crucial:** Effective dairy feed bunk management integrates continuous observation, precise feed availability, quantitative refusal assessment, and detailed record-keeping to optimize dry matter intake, minimize feed sorting, and prevent metabolic disorders like subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA). - **Bunk Observation as a Diagnostic Tool:** Observable cues such as long stem presence, wet spots, or refused clumps indicate sorting behavior and potential ration uniformity issues, which can precede SARA by leading to excessive concentrate intake. A clean bunk with minimal refusal of long particles signifies proper ration consumption. - **Refusal Targets and Intake Monitoring:** A target refusal rate of 3-5% of offered fresh matter is typical, but must be adjusted for production stage; less than 1% risks empty bunks and disrupted rumen fermentation, while over 10% signifies feed waste. Daily weighing of refusals is essential for calculating dry matter intake per cow. - **Transition Period Vulnerability:** Transition cows (prepartum to postpartum) are highly susceptible to metabolic diseases like displaced abomasum and metritis due to suppressed dry matter intake and rapid physiological changes; precise bunk management, including frequent observation and adequate bunk space, is critical during this period. - **Facilities and Environmental Impact:** Inadequate bunk space (less than 0.6-0.8 meters per Holstein) forces subordinate animals to eat at less optimal times, reducing intake and increasing acidosis risk. Well-drained, clean feed alleys and adequate ventilation are vital to prevent feed spoilage and support consistent feeding behavior. - **Data-Driven Adjustments:** Daily logs of feed delivery, refusals, bunk scores, and environmental conditions enable trend analysis, identifying issues like seasonal intake depression or responses to ration changes. Discrepancies between delivered and refused nutrient composition (over 5%) necessitate mixer calibration and ingredient moisture verification. --- **Direct answer:** Dairy feed bunk management integrates bunk observation, feed availability, refusal assessment, and records to guide daily feeding decisions for lactating and dry cows. This systematic approach aims to maintain consistent dry matter intake, reduce feed sorting, and prevent metabolic disorders such as subacute ruminal acidosis. ## At a Glance | Element | Purpose | Key Practice | |---|---|---| | Bunk observation | Detect feed refusal patterns and sorting | Score bunks before and after feeding using a standardized scale | | Feed availability | Ensure ad libitum access while minimizing waste | Push up feed frequently, adjust delivery based on refusal amount | | Refusal assessment | Quantify feed intake and diet uniformity | Weigh refusals daily, target 3,5% of offered fresh matter | | Records | Track intake, health events, and bunk management changes | Maintain daily logs linked to pen, diet, and animal group | ## System Context The feed bunk serves as the interface between ration formulation and actual nutrient intake. Even a precisely balanced total mixed ration fails if cows cannot access it consistently or if they sort against palatable but necessary components such as long forage particles. [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) notes that bunk management must account for social hierarchy, stocking density, and feed space,each of which influences per,cow intake and rumen health. In high,producing Holstein dairy herds, suboptimal bunk management directly contributes to displaced abomasum risk, particularly during the transition period when dry matter intake is already suppressed. [Dry Cow Diet, Management, and Energy Balance as Risk Factors for Displaced Abomasum in High Producing Dairy Herds](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0031600522) (1998-01-01) documents this association and underscores the need for precise bunk oversight from the dry period onward. ### The Bunk as an Indicator Observable bunk conditions,such as the presence of long stems, wet spots, or refused clumps,reveal sorting behavior and potential ration uniformity problems. Sorting for concentrates and against forages elevates starch intake in the first few hours after feeding, which can trigger a bout of subacute ruminal acidosis. [Understanding and preventing subacute ruminal acidosis in dairy herds: A review](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/32244438234) (2006-03-09) explains that repeated acidosis episodes reduce fiber digestion and increase lameness risk. By contrast, a clean bunk with minimal refusal of long particles indicates that the ration is consumed as formulated. [Prepartum behavior and dry matter intake identify dairy cows at risk for metritis](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/35748961394) (2007-01-01) shows that reduced prepartum bunk attendance and lower dry matter intake precede postpartum disease, reinforcing the value of routine observation. ## Planning Decisions Feeding frequency and timing are planned according to group production level, stage of lactation, and housing type. Multiple feed deliveries per day reduce sorting and encourage more evenly distributed intake across 24 hours. However, the farmer must balance this with labor and equipment constraints. The core planning decision is setting the refusal target. Too little refusal (e.g., less than 1% of offered feed) risks cows being empty at the bunk for part of the day, which disrupts rumen fermentation. Too much refusal (above 10%) wastes feed nutrients and inflates feed costs. An intermediate range is appropriate for most lactating groups, but should be adjusted for fresh cows that have lower appetite and for high,energy rations where sorting is more likely. ### Feed Availability and Refusals Feed availability is not simply a matter of total pounds delivered. The distribution of feed along the bunk and the timing of push,ups affect how evenly all cows can eat. [Feeding behavior and management factors during the transition period in dairy cattle](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0029364917) (1995-01-01) emphasizes that even short periods without feed access (e.g., two hours) can reduce total daily intake and increase feeding rate,a pattern linked to ruminal acidosis. Therefore, bunk observation must include the condition of the feed at different times of day, also at the moment of delivery. Refusals should be weighed at the same time daily, ideally just before the next feeding, so that dry matter intake per cow can be calculated. ## Core Management Framework A systematic bundle of observation, assessment, and records provides the feedback loop needed to adjust bunk management daily. ### Observation Record a standardized bunk score for each pen at a set time after feeding (e.g., four hours post,delivery). Scoring categories typically describe the percentage of the bunk surface covered with feed and the presence of refused particles. Simultaneously note whether the feed appears uniform or if cows have pushed it aside. [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) extension materials recommend integrating bunk scores with movement of cows to and from the pen, because stress or illness can change feeding behavior. ### Assessment Combine bunk score with refusal weight data to estimate whether the current delivery rate meets group appetite. If refusal weights rise while bunk scores indicate uneaten feed, consider whether the ration is palatable or whether excessive mixing created a fine particle size. If refusal weights drop and bunks are clean soon after feeding, increase delivery gradually. [PubMed record 42398720](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42398720/) discusses relationships between particle size distribution and refusal composition, large particle refusal may signal that the ration’s forage inclusion or chop length is inadequate. For fresh cows, a refusal increase can be a warning sign before clinical disease appears, as noted in the prepartum behavior literature. ### Records Maintain a daily log that includes pen identification, delivery time, amount offered, weight of refusals, bunk score, and any anomalies (e.g., unexpected silage spoilage, mixer malfunction). Over time, this record supports monthly bench marking and reveals trends such as seasonal intake depression or response to ration changes. [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) guidelines emphasize that records must be simple enough to be kept consistently yet detailed enough to identify problems early. When a herd experiences multiple metabolic issues, a systematic review of bunk management records can identify the underlying cause and guide corrective action. ## Facilities and Environmental Considerations [Feed bunk design](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/feedlot-feed-bunk-design-management) and layout directly influence intake consistency and social competition. Headlock or feed-rail spacing should accommodate the number of animals assigned to each pen, allowing all cows simultaneous access during feeding bouts. In freestall operations, providing 0.6 to 0.8 meters of linear bunk space per mature Holstein is considered standard, though individual farm dimensions and cow size may warrant adjustment. Inadequate space forces subordinate animals to eat at less preferred times, reducing daily dry matter intake and increasing the risk of ruminal acidosis [Understanding and preventing subacute ruminal acidosis in dairy herds](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/32244438234). The feed alley surface should be well-drained, smooth but non-slip, and cleaned at least once daily to prevent accumulation of spoiled feed and mold. Adequate ventilation across the bunk face reduces heating of feed in warm weather and minimizes condensation that supports fungal growth. Lighting in the feeding area should be uniform and bright enough to allow visual inspection of feed condition and refusals. During non-feeding hours, photoperiod manipulation may be used, but sudden changes in lighting intensity can disrupt eating patterns. Cows prefer consistent, low-stress environments, abrupt shifts in temperature, humidity, or air movement near the bunk can reduce bunk attendance and feed intake [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/). Water troughs must be placed within 3 to 4 meters of the bunk and cleaned daily. If water sources are distant or have limited flow rates, cows may interrupt meals to drink, leading to slug feeding and increased rumen pH fluctuation. ## Nutrition and Water: Bunk Observation and Refusal Assessment Total mixed ration (TMR) delivery should occur at a consistent time each day, ideally during cooler hours. Fresh feed arrival stimulates bunk attendance, and the feed should be pushed up at least four times daily in loose-housing systems to maintain access. Bunk observation immediately after feeding reveals sorting behavior,cows pushing aside long particles to consume finer ingredients,which increases the risk of subacute ruminal acidosis [Understanding and preventing subacute ruminal acidosis in dairy herds](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/32244438234). Visual signs of sorting include a “trench” along the bunk face and accumulation of longer forage particles at the rear. Refusal assessment provides direct feedback on ration palatability, mixing accuracy, and intake patterns. Weigh refusals daily, representatively sample them, and compare the nutrient composition to the delivered ration. A refusal weight target of 3% to 5% of delivered feed is typical, but this varies by group. If refusals exceed 10%, feed wastage is excessive, if less than 2%, cows may have been undereating or competition may have restricted intake. The moisture content of refusals should be similar to the delivered TMR, wetter refusals suggest particle sorting or spoilage. Water intake is closely linked with dry matter intake. Provide at least one water trough per 20 cows, with a minimum depth of 8 cm and a flow rate of 10 to 15 L per minute for herd sizes over 100 animals. Troughs should be cleaned twice weekly, more often in hot weather. Cows will not travel more than 25 m from the feed bunk to water, especially after eating, so water access near the bunk is essential [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/). Chlorinated water or alternative sanitizers may be used, but residual levels must not deter drinking. ## Production-Stage Decisions Transition cows (three weeks prepartum to three weeks postpartum) require the most precise bunk management. This group experiences rapid changes in dry matter intake (DMI) and energy balance, making them vulnerable to displaced abomasum and metritis [Prepartum behavior and dry matter intake identify dairy cows at risk for metritis](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/35748961394) and [Dry Cow Diet, Management, and Energy Balance as Risk Factors for Displaced Abomasum in High Producing Dairy Herds](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0031600522). Separate close-up and fresh pens allow targeted nutrition and reduced competition. Bunk observation should occur at least twice daily to detect cows that fail to rise and eat within 30 minutes of feed delivery. Any cow showing reduced bunk attendance for two consecutive feedings should be examined for illness, lameness, or metabolic disease. Cows that spend more time lying and less time feeding during the prepartum period have a higher incidence of postpartum disease [Feeding behavior and management factors during the transition period in dairy cattle](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0029364917). Lactation groups should be managed according to milk yield, body condition score, and stage of lactation. High-producing groups require rations with higher energy density, but concentrate-rich diets increase the risk of acidosis. Bunk management in these groups must focus on feeding frequency (two to three times daily) to smooth rumen fermentation. Mid- and late-lactation groups can tolerate slightly lower feed push-up frequency and larger feeding intervals. Refusals from these groups should be assessed weekly for changes in particle size distribution, an increase in fines or a decrease in long forage particles indicates sorting due to high concentrate palatability. Dry cow groups (far-off dry) need consistent, lower-energy rations. Overfeeding during the dry period can lead to excessive body condition and increased risk of retained placenta and ketosis after calving. Bunk observation during the dry period is less intensive but still critical,any cow that consistently leaves large refusals or fails to approach the bunk warrants individual examination. ## Records and Data-Driven Decision Making Record feed deliveries, refusal weights, and DMI for each group daily. The ratio of DMI to body weight should fall within an expected range (approximately 3.5% to 4% of body weight for lactation, 1.5% to 2% for dry cows). Weekly trends in DMI indicate health or dietary problems before overt clinical signs appear. A 10% drop in group DMI over three days justifies immediate investigation of feed quality, mixing, or health events. Record environmental conditions,barn temperature, humidity, and ventilation rates,alongside intake data. Hot weather above 25°C reduces intake by 10% to 20%, and combined with high humidity, the effect is amplified [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms). Incorporating these data into a spreadsheet or herd management software allows managers to adjust feeding times and ration moisture content as needed. Refusal samples should be analyzed for dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and starch at least monthly. Discrepancies between delivered and refused nutrient composition greater than 5% indicate mixing errors or segregation during transit. When discrepancies are detected, calibrate the mixer wagon, check ingredient moisture levels, and verify particle distribution using a Penn State Particle Separator. ## Welfare, Worker Safety, and [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Poor bunk management reduces cow welfare through hunger, acidosis, lameness, and increased aggression at feeding. Cows that cannot access feed within 60 minutes of delivery exhibit increased stress behaviors and reduced rumination [Benchmarking cow comfort on North American freestall dairies](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/84869494451). Chronic low feed access contributes to lameness by forcing cows to stand in hard, wet alleys while waiting. Barcode or electronic ear tag monitoring of individual feeding times, if available, can identify cows that loiter near the bunk without eating,these animals require health inspection. Worker safety involves proper use of feeding equipment, especially when pushing up feed or delivering TMR. Mixer wagons and skid-steer loaders present pinch points and rollover hazards. Workers handling refusals should wear gloves and dust masks to avoid exposure to mold spores and mycotoxins. Refusal removal every 24 hours prevents fungal growth that could contaminate the next batch of feed. Any moldy or hot refusals should not be fed to other groups or pastured animals, they should be safely composted or discarded. Food safety aspects are mainly indirect. Mycotoxins in moldy feed can be excreted into milk, although properly managed bunk systems minimize that risk. The [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) and regional food safety authorities set limits for aflatoxin M1 in milk, dry, cool, well-ventilated feed storage and prompt refusal removal maintain safe feed quality. ## Failure Patterns and Practical Monitoring Common failure patterns include overcrowded pens (more cows than bunk spaces), inconsistent feeding times, uneven mixing (mixing times less than 3 minutes or exceeding 6 minutes for a stationary TMR mixer), and infrequent feed push-up. Each pattern reduces intake and increases metabolic disease incidence. Another pattern is over-dependence on a single TMR that fails to account for seasonal changes in forage quality. Many herds neglect to adjust added water based on forage moisture, resulting in over-wet TMR that ferments rapidly in the bunk. Practical monitoring tools are low-tech but effective. Use a snatch-grab sample of TMR immediately after delivery and again just before the next feeding to assess changes in particle length and moisture. Bunk scoring (visual estimation of how much feed remains) three times daily at 0, 6, and 12 hours after delivery helps match feeding amounts to intake. A 0 score means “empty bunk”, 1 means “scattered particles remaining”, 2 means “thin layer”, 3 means “continuous layer up to 2 cm deep”, 4 means “3,5 cm remaining.” Persistent scores of 0 or 1 indicate underfeeding, persistent scores of 4 indicate overfeeding. Daily walk-through observation at feeding times allows managers to spot individual cows that are missing meals, standing to the side, or showing signs of lameness. Any cow that fails to approach the bunk within 15 minutes of fresh feed delivery warrants individual examination by the herd veterinarian or trained livestock manager. Early detection of reduced feed intake improves treatment outcomes and reduces financial losses [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease). ## Health Observation through Bunk Assessment Daily bunk observation provides a noninvasive window into individual and group health status. Cows that approach the bunk later, eat more slowly, or leave feed untouched are often in the early stages of disease. Reduced dry matter intake often precedes clinical signs of metritis, displaced abomasum, and subacute ruminal acidosis. Prepartum feeding behavior and intake changes can identify cows at elevated risk for postpartum metritis, as documented in research on prepartum behavior and dry matter intake [Prepartum behavior and dry matter intake identify dairy cows at risk for metritis](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/35748961394). Similarly, cows that decrease time at the bunk or display sorting behavior may be experiencing subacute ruminal acidosis, a condition linked to inconsistent feed delivery and excessive starch intake [Understanding and preventing subacute ruminal acidosis in dairy herds: A review](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/32244438234). Bunk observation should be performed at a consistent time after feed delivery, and any cow that fails to rise and eat within 30 minutes warrants attention. Feed refusal assessment also informs health monitoring. A sudden increase in refusals across a pen may indicate a feed quality problem such as mold, heating, or a shift in ingredient composition. Individual cows that leave significant amounts of feed or sort energetically may be unwell. Tracking refusal patterns for each pen allows managers to distinguish between management-related variation and disease-related depression in intake. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) provides national benchmarks for herd health parameters, but herd-specific records are more sensitive for early detection. ## Biosecurity in Feed Handling Feed bunks and the surrounding area are potential vectors for pathogen transmission. Contaminated feed, water, or feed contact surfaces can introduce or spread infectious agents. Biosecurity protocols should include cleaning and disinfecting feed delivery equipment between groups, especially when moving from sick pens to healthy pens. Feed refusals removed from the bunk should be disposed of in a manner that prevents contact with healthy livestock. The [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) outlines general biosecurity principles applicable to feed management, though specific national regulations may differ. Producers should consult with their veterinarian to develop a biosecurity plan that addresses feed handling, storage, and bunk sanitation. Rodent and bird control around feed storage and bunks reduces the risk of feed contamination with pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia coli. Feed bunks should be cleaned of old refusals before fresh feed is added to prevent spoilage and microbial growth. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) resources emphasize the importance of feed hygiene in preventing disease outbreaks. ## Diagnostic and Veterinary Escalation When bunk observation or refusal records signal a potential health problem, the response should follow a structured diagnostic process. First, rule out management causes: check feed composition, delivery timing, bunk space, and environmental conditions such as heat stress or overcrowding. If management factors are within normal ranges and intake remains depressed, the next step is individual animal examination. Veterinary consultation is indicated when multiple cows in a pen show reduced intake, when a cow fails to eat for more than 12 hours, or when intake depression is accompanied by other signs such as fever, diarrhea, or lameness. Diagnostic tools may include rumen fluid analysis to assess pH and protozoal activity, blood chemistry to evaluate metabolic status, and feed analysis for mycotoxins or nutrient imbalances. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) provides detailed guidance on diagnostic approaches for metabolic diseases such as subacute ruminal acidosis and displaced abomasum. For transition cows, a veterinarian should be involved in evaluating diet formulation and management practices. Research on dry cow diet and energy balance as risk factors for displaced abomasum underscores the importance of professional oversight during the periparturient period [Dry Cow Diet, Management, and Energy Balance as Risk Factors for Displaced Abomasum in High Producing Dairy Herds](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0031600522). ## Uncertainty and Limitations Interpreting bunk observation and refusal data involves inherent uncertainty. Not all cows that eat poorly are sick, some may be subordinate, uncomfortable due to lameness, or affected by transient environmental stressors. Conversely, a cow that appears to eat normally may still have a subclinical disease. Pinpoint diagnosis always requires integration of multiple data streams, including production records, [body condition scoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/body-condition-scoring-a-tool-for-feed-management), and physical examination. Refusal percentages that are too low may indicate overfeeding of a low-quality diet, while very high refusals may lead to feed waste and economic loss. There is no universal optimal refusal rate, the target depends on herd genetics, diet density, and management goals. Herd-level records over time help establish local benchmarks. When uncertainty persists, seeking advice from a veterinarian or nutritionist is warranted. ## Sustainability Aspects Reducing feed waste by managing refusals appropriately contributes to sustainability. Inedible refusals represent lost economic value and environmental burden in terms of land, water, and energy used to produce them. Precise feed delivery based on bunk scores and refusal measurement reduces overfeeding and nutrient runoff. Minimizing waste also lowers the carbon footprint per unit of milk produced. The [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) resources note that healthy, well-fed herds are more resilient and require fewer antibiotic interventions, aligning with sustainable production goals. Routine culling of chronically affected cows with poor feed intake further improves herd efficiency. ## Frequently Asked Questions **1. How can I tell if a cow is sick based on bunk behavior?** A healthy cow typically rises and eats within 30 minutes of fresh feed delivery. Cows that remain lying, approach the bunk late, or leave significant feed uneaten may be ill. Cross-reference with appetite and rumen fill scoring. **2. What percentage of feed refusal is considered normal?** There is no universal number, typical targets range from 3 to 10 percent depending on diet, season, and group. Refusal percentages should be evaluated in the context of herd records and nutritional goals. **3. Can feed refusal data help detect subacute ruminal acidosis?** Yes. Cows with subacute ruminal acidosis often sort against long fiber and consume less total feed, leading to increased refusals and sorting behavior. Rumen pH sampling confirms the diagnosis. **4. Should I remove refusals daily?** Yes. Removing refused feed daily prevents spoilage, reduces pathogen loads, and allows accurate measurement of intake. Bunks should be cleaned before next feeding. **5. How does heat stress affect bunk behavior?** Heat stress depresses dry matter intake and shifts eating to cooler periods. Cows may bunch at the bunk and sort for wetter, more palatable feed. Adjust feeding time and ration moisture accordingly. **6. When should I call a veterinarian for a bunk issue?** Call a veterinarian when multiple cows in a pen show reduced intake, when a cow refuses feed for more than 12 hours, or when intake depression is accompanied by other clinical signs such as fever, diarrhea, or lameness. **7. Can feed bunk management prevent metabolic disease?** Consistent feed delivery, adequate bunk space, and balanced rations help prevent displaced abomasum, ketosis, and ruminal acidosis. Feeding behavior during the transition period is especially critical. **8. How do I set up a simple refusal monitoring system?** Weigh refusals daily for each pen and calculate the percentage of feed offered. Record the amount and note any changes in group behavior. Use a pen-side notebook or spreadsheet to track trends over time. ## Educational Veterinary Notice The information provided here is for educational purposes and does not replace professional veterinary advice. Dairy producers should work with their herd veterinarian and a qualified nutritionist to develop a feed bunk management plan tailored to their specific herd needs. Disease diagnosis and treatment require timely veterinary consultation. Always follow local animal health regulations and food safety standards. ## Related Farming Guides - [Dairy Cattle Farming Nutrition Housing Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cattle-farming-nutrition-housing-health-signals-and-herd-management) - [Transition Cow Management From Dry Off To Freshening](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/transition-cow-management-from-dry-off-to-freshening) - [Dairy Calf Colostrum Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-calf-colostrum-management) - [Milking Routine And Parlor Hygiene](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/milking-routine-and-parlor-hygiene) - [Dairy Farm Records That Drive Better Decisions](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-farm-records-that-drive-better-decisions) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Evaluating Feed Additives for Dairy Cow Performance](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/evaluating-feed-additives-for-dairy-cow-performance) * [Dairy Barn Fire Safety: Design and Prevention Measures](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-barn-fire-safety-design-prevention) * [Dairy Cow Pregnancy Loss Records and Review](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-pregnancy-loss-records-and-review) ## References and Further Reading - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) - [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) - [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) - [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) - [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.