# Dairy Cow Cooling System Management ## Key Takeaways - Effective dairy cow cooling necessitates a synergistic approach combining fans for convective heat loss and sprinklers for evaporative cooling, with management ensuring both operate optimally to prevent heat stress-induced declines in feed intake, milk production, and reproductive efficiency. - System planning must account for facility type, climate zone (consulting local THI thresholds), stocking density, water quality, and electrical capacity to ensure adequate design and prevent operational inefficiencies or animal discomfort. - Regular maintenance, including weekly fan belt tension checks, monthly blade cleaning, and quarterly belt replacement, alongside weekly sprinkler nozzle inspections and monthly line flushing with mild acid, is critical for maintaining system performance and preventing failures. - Cow behavior serves as a primary monitoring tool; observing lying time, panting scores (above 80 breaths/min indicates severe stress), bunching patterns, and water trough usage allows for immediate assessment of cooling adequacy and triggers necessary adjustments. - Heat load monitoring should integrate Temperature-Humidity Index (THI) data with direct physiological metrics like respiration rate and rectal temperature (above 39.5°C in lactating cows indicates insufficient cooling), alongside milk yield deviations, to quantify environmental and animal stress. - Nutritional adjustments, including increased nutrient density and fat supplementation, alongside ensuring ample access to cool, clean water (below 20°C), are vital to compensate for reduced dry matter intake and increased water requirements during heat stress. --- ## Dairy Cow Cooling System Management Effective cooling system management for dairy cows requires coordinated operation of fans and sprinklers, systematic maintenance protocols, observation of cow behavioral responses, and continuous heat-load monitoring. Heat stress diminishes feed intake, milk production, reproductive performance, and immune function in dairy cattle, as documented across multiple research domains (PubMed record 42036479, PubMed record 41860825). The cooling system serves as the primary engineered intervention to mitigate these effects. Management decisions determine whether the system delivers adequate heat abatement or contributes to inefficiency and animal discomfort. ## At a Glance | Component | Core Function | Primary Management Task | |-----------|---------------|------------------------| | Fans | Increase convective heat loss | Maintain air velocity ≥ design specification | | Sprinklers | Wet skin for evaporative cooling | Match wetting cycle to air movement and humidity | | Cow behavior | Indicator of cooling adequacy | Monitor lying time, panting score, bunching | | Heat-load monitoring | Quantify environmental and animal stress | Use temperature-humidity index and respiration rate | ## System Context and Planning Decisions ### Rationale for Engineered Cooling Dairy cows generate substantial metabolic heat from rumen fermentation and milk synthesis. When ambient temperature and humidity exceed the thermoneutral zone, cattle rely on evaporative cooling through sweating and panting. High heat load compromises reproductive success through disruption of oocyte development, embryonic survival, and hormonal signaling (PubMed record 42019968, The impact of heat stress on the immune system in dairy cattle: A review, Impaired reproduction in heat-stressed cattle: Basic and applied aspects). The effects extend to altered immune function and increased disease susceptibility (PubMed record 42345774). Cooling systems must therefore operate before cows reach visible distress, not as a response to it. ### Planning Decisions Before Installation The following factors influence system design and management approach: - **Facility type**: Freestall barns, compost-bedded packs, and open lots require different fan placement, sprinkler coverage, and water drainage strategies. - **Climate zone**: Arid regions demand different wetting frequencies than humid regions where evaporation is slower. Producers should consult local extension guidance for region-specific temperature-humidity index thresholds. - **Stocking density**: Overcrowding reduces effective air movement per cow and increases humidity in the pen, degrading sprinkler performance. - **Water quality and availability**: Poor water quality can clog sprinkler nozzles, insufficient flow rates compromise wetting coverage. The FAO Animal Production and Health guidelines emphasize water supply reliability for cooling systems. - **Electrical capacity**: Fan systems draw significant current, undersized electrical service limits simultaneous operation and introduces fire risk. ### Core Management Framework Cooling system management follows a four-part framework that addresses equipment function, animal response, environmental conditions, and contingency planning. Each component requires documented standard operating procedures and personnel training. The Merck Veterinary Manual outlines that no single management action suffices, integrated strategies yield the best outcomes. The framework rests on the principle that fans and sprinklers act synergistically. Sprinklers wet the skin, fans remove heat and moisture from the boundary layer. Neither component works effectively alone. When fans operate without sprinklers, cows gain only modest benefit at high temperature. When sprinklers operate without adequate airflow, humidity rises and evaporative cooling slows. Management must ensure both systems function as designed and operate according to cow behavior and environmental data. Personnel responsible for cooling system management require instruction on recognizing heat stress signs, adjusting sprinkler timing based on weather, and troubleshooting common fan and nozzle failures. The USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System has documented that producer education on heat abatement correlates with reduced mortality during heat waves. Regular audits of system performance, including airflow measurement and sprinkler coverage mapping, provide objective data for corrective action. ## Facility Design and Environmental Modifications Effective cooling system management begins with facility layout that enables consistent air movement and sprinkler coverage. Freestall barns, cross-ventilated barns, and open-sided structures each impose distinct requirements on fan placement and sprinkler spacing (FAO Animal Production and Health). In naturally ventilated barns, ridge openings and side curtains must be adjusted to maximize wind-driven air exchange without creating dead zones where heat accumulates. Overcrowding in holding pens and along feed alleys reduces the benefit of any cooling equipment because cow-to-cow body heat exchange intensifies the local microclimate. Facility audits should verify that fan diameters and blade pitch match the barn’s width and that no obstructions such as support columns or stored feed block airflow paths. Shade structures remain a first line of defense when overhead fans are absent. However, shade alone is insufficient when temperature,humidity index exceeds 72, because radiative heat gain is only one component of total heat stress. The USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System has documented that farms combining shade with forced ventilation and sprinklers achieve lower respiration rates than those relying on shade alone. Proper orientation of shade structures,north,south alignment for overhead sun movement,reduces the area of exposed ground beneath, which otherwise radiates heat at night. Concrete or compacted soil under shade should be kept dry to prevent humidity buildup from evaporating sprinkler water. ## Fan Operation and Maintenance Axial fans are the standard for dairy barns, but their performance degrades rapidly if belts loosen, blades accumulate dust, or shutters fail to open fully. A maintenance schedule should include weekly visual inspection of belt tension and blade cleanliness, monthly cleaning of fan blades and shrouds using low,pressure water, and quarterly replacement of worn belts. Fans placed every 8 to 10 meters along the feed line in freestall barns must deliver a minimum wind speed of 2 meters per second at cow height, speeds below that threshold do little to enhance convective cooling. Variable,frequency drives allow modulation of fan speed based on real,time temperature readings, but they require calibration to avoid underventilation during the hottest hours. Thermostat placement is critical. Sensors mounted on columns near the roof capture ambient air that is warmer than the cow,level zone, causing fans to cycle unnecessarily or too late. Sensors should be positioned 1.5 meters above the floor in the center of the pen, shielded from direct sunlight and sprinkler mist, and cross,referenced with a portable handheld meter during seasonal commissioning. The Merck Veterinary Manual notes that cows begin to show heat,stress behaviors when barn temperature exceeds 25°C with relative humidity above 50%, thresholds that can guide fan activation set points. ## Sprinkler System Design and Maintenance Sprinkler nozzles must deliver droplet sizes large enough to penetrate the cow’s hair coat and wet the skin, instead of creating a fine mist that evaporates in the air. Coarse droplets (800 to 1200 microns) achieved by low,pressure nozzles wet the dorsal surface of the cow, and when followed by a fan cycle the evaporative cooling effect is maximized. Wetting cycles of 30 to 60 seconds followed by a 3, to 5,minute drying period allow sufficient water contact without pooling on the floor. Nozzle clogging from mineral deposits, algae, or organic debris is the most common failure pattern. A preventive protocol includes flushing the water line monthly with a mild acid solution (e.g., 1% phosphoric acid) and inspecting nozzle orifices weekly during the hot season. Water pressure must be regulated,too low and the spray pattern becomes uneven, too high and atomization occurs, wasting water and raising humidity. The Food and Agriculture Organization recommends that sprinkler systems be equipped with pressure gauges at the header and at the farthest nozzle, with a pressure drop exceeding 15% indicating a blockage or pipe restriction. Workers should be trained to recognize wet,band patterns on cows, a dry back or flank suggests that a nozzle is misaligned or obstructed. ## Cow Behavior as a Monitoring Tool Behavioral observation provides an immediate, low,cost indicator of cooling system effectiveness. Cows that stand instead of lie down are seeking increased air movement over their skin or trying to reduce contact with a hot stall surface. When cooling is effective, cows resume lying within 30 minutes of the sprinkler,fan cycle. Aggregation at water troughs, open,mouth breathing, and drooling with tongue extended are signs of advanced heat load, these behaviors should trigger an immediate check of fan and sprinkler operation. USDA APHIS livestock disease guidelines emphasize that any cow showing prolonged open,mouth breathing is at risk of hyperthermia even if ambient temperature is moderate, because individual factors such as high milk yield or lameness reduce heat,tolerance capacity. Cows will also self,sort within the barn. When fans are running, they prefer locations directly under the fan stream. If the majority of cows cluster in a single alley or under a specific fan, the cooling distribution in other zones is likely inadequate. Behavioral scoring sheets, with categories for respiration rate, posture, and water access, allow workers to document trends across pens and shifts. Escalation to a veterinarian or animal scientist is warranted when more than 15% of a pen exhibits severe panting (respiration rate above 80 breaths per minute) because that level of heat stress is associated with rumen acidosis, depressed feed intake, and increased morbidity. ## Heat,Load Monitoring Instruments Respiratory rate measured by counting flank movements for 15 seconds and multiplying by four is the most practical on,farm metric. Rectal temperature above 39.5°C in lactating cows or above 39.0°C in dry cows indicates insufficient cooling, temperatures exceeding 40.5°C require immediate intervention and veterinary consultation. The reviews on heat stress and reproduction (Heat stress and seasonal effects on reproduction in the dairy cow, 2003) and immune function (The impact of heat stress on the immune system in dairy cattle, 2019) both confirm that core body temperature above 39.0°C for more than 12 hours per day disrupts oocyte development and lymphocyte activity, even if the cow appears to recover at night. Temperature,humidity index (THI) loggers placed at cow height provide continuous data for trend analysis. However, THI alone does not account for solar radiation, wind speed, or the cow’s metabolic heat production. Therefore a THI reading of 75 may be tolerable under fans but dangerous in still air. Monitoring should combine THI with behavioral observations and milk yield deviations. A drop of more than 2 kg per cow per day compared to the previous week is often the first quantifiable sign of inadequate cooling, and it should prompt a review of system settings and maintenance logs. ## Nutrition and Water Adjustments During heat stress, cows feed intake decreases by 8 to 15% in direct proportion to the duration of elevated THI. Diets should be formulated to increase nutrient density,more concentrate and higher,quality forages,to compensate for reduced dry matter intake. Adding fat (bypass fat or oilseeds) increases energy density without generating as much metabolic heat as starch. The Elsevier review on environmental effects on dairy cattle (Major advances associated with environmental effects on dairy cattle) outlines that mineral supplementation, particularly potassium, sodium, and magnesium, corrects electrolyte losses from increased salivation and urinary excretion. Rumen buffers like sodium bicarbonate become more important because heat,stressed cows are prone to subacute rumen acidosis. Water is the single most critical nutrient during hot weather. Cows may drink 50% more water when THI exceeds 75. Troughs must be located within 15 meters of the exit from the milking parlor and within each pen, flow rates should allow refill within 10 minutes of a group drinking session. Water temperature below 20°C is preferred because warmer water reduces voluntary intake. Daily cleaning of water troughs prevents biofilm formation that deters drinking. In facilities with automatic waterers, float valves must be adjusted to maintain depth so that cows can submerge their muzzles fully. ## Production,Stage Decisions Cooling intensity and duration should differ by production stage. Lactating cows in early to peak lactation have the highest metabolic heat production, they benefit from sprinkler,fan cycles that operate continuously whenever barn temperature exceeds 22°C. Far,off dry cows (3 to 8 weeks before expected calving) can tolerate slightly higher thresholds (25°C) but still require shade and fan access. The transition period from 3 weeks prepartum to 3 weeks postpartum is particularly vulnerable: heat stress during the dry period reduces subsequent milk yield by 10 to 15% and impairs passive immunity transfer to calves. Cooling this group to a rectal temperature below 39.0°C before parturition is associated with fewer stillbirths and retained placentas, as reported in the review on impaired reproduction in heat,stressed cattle (Impaired reproduction in heat,stressed cattle, 2000). Cows that have recently calved should be kept in a well,ventilated close,up pen with additional focus on feed intake monitoring. Lame cows and those with mastitis produce more metabolic heat because their immune response elevates core temperature, they should be prioritized for pen assignment close to fans. The USDA NAHMS data indicate that lameness prevalence increases during summer, partly because cows spend more time standing on concrete in an attempt to cool themselves, which exacerbates hoof lesions. ## Worker and [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Sprinkler water that pools on walkways creates slipping hazards for both cows and workers. Floors should be grooved or textured, and drainage channels must be kept clear of feed debris. Electrical safety is a concern when fans and pumps operate in a wet environment, ground,fault circuit interrupters should be installed on all outdoor and barn circuits, and insulation integrity should be tested after each cleaning cycle. Water used for sprinklers must be potable or of a quality that does not introduce pathogens. The WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code recommends that water sources be tested quarterly for coliforms and nitrates, especially if reclaimed water is used for flushing or cooling. Sprinkler nozzles that drip after shutdown can contaminate feed bunks, positioning sprinklers to avoid direct spray on feed reduces spoilage and mycotoxin risk. ## Failure Patterns and Corrective Actions The most frequent failures in dairy cooling systems include belt slipping on fans, clogged sprinkler nozzles, burnt,out fan motors due to excessive dust accumulation, and thermostat drift. A systematic log of maintenance actions and repairs helps identify recurring issues. For example, if fan motors fail repeatedly in one section of the barn, the electrical load may be imbalanced or the motor rating may be insufficient for the operating humidity. Sprinkler lines that develop air locks at the far end result in dry zones, installing automatic air vents at high points in the pipe system prevents this. When a cow becomes hyperthermic despite apparent equipment function, a portable fan and water hose can be used to spot,cool her while a veterinarian is called. The Merck Veterinary Manual advises that any cow with a rectal temperature above 41.0°C should be moved to a shaded, ventilated area and drenched with cool water until temperature drops below 39.5°C, followed by veterinarian assessment for underlying illness. ## Records and Continuous Improvement Daily records of THI, milk yield, pen,level panting scores, and water consumption provide the data needed to adjust cooling strategies week by week. A spreadsheet or barn management software can flag when the number of high,panting,score cows exceeds a set threshold. At the end of each hot season, a review of records identifies which pens or cow groups required extra intervention. Adjusting sprinkler cycle duration, fan speed, or the timing of cooling (e.g., turning on fans one hour earlier in the morning) can be tested against the previous year’s outcomes. The goal is to keep cows comfortable and productive without wasting water or electricity. Consulting with a dairy extension specialist or veterinarian to analyse these records annually helps refine the cooling protocol for the next season. ## Health Observation, Biosecurity, and Diagnostic Escalation ### Health Observation for Heat Stress Daily observation of dairy cows during warm periods is the foundation of effective cooling system management. Clinical signs of heat stress include elevated respiratory rate (above 60 breaths per minute under thermoneutral conditions), drooling, open-mouth breathing, increased standing time, and reduced feed intake. The [PubMed record 42019968](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42019968/) on developmental changes in embryonic resistance to maternal heat stress and the [review on heat stress and seasonal effects on reproduction in the dairy cow](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0043286420) both document that even moderate heat stress diminishes reproductive performance through impaired oocyte quality, early embryonic death, and reduced conception rates. Producers should integrate [body condition scoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/body-condition-scoring-a-tool-for-feed-management) and milk yield trends into daily checks, a drop in milk production of 5% or more over consecutive days warrants immediate cooling system review and veterinary consultation. The [PubMed record 42036479](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42036479/) on impaired reproduction in heat-stressed cattle further emphasizes that the effects of heat stress on fertility are not fully reversible once the thermal insult has occurred, making early detection essential. The temperature-humidity index (THI) remains the standard environmental metric for heat load monitoring, but individual cow variation means that some animals show signs of heat stress at THI values below 68, while others tolerate higher levels. [PubMed record 42290775](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42290775/) on major advances associated with environmental effects on dairy cattle notes that factors such as lactation stage, parity, coat color, and body condition influence an individual cow's thermal tolerance. Managers should therefore combine THI readings with direct behavioral observations instead of relying solely on environmental data. ### Biosecurity Considerations for Cooling Systems Fan and sprinkler systems create surfaces and water conditions that may support pathogen survival and transmission. The [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) provides guidelines for cleaning and disinfection of livestock equipment, including the recommendation that cooling infrastructure be included in routine biosecurity audits. Standing water in sprinkler troughs or on barn floors can harbor bacteria such as _Escherichia coli_, _Salmonella_ spp., and _Mycobacterium avium_ subspecies _paratuberculosis_. The [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) resources advise that splash from sprinklers can aerosolize fecal material, increasing the risk of respiratory disease transmission. To mitigate these risks, sprinkler systems should be flushed with potable water after each use cycle and treated with approved sanitizers at least weekly. Fan blades and shutters accumulate dust and organic material and should be cleaned during system maintenance. Consult your herd veterinarian to develop a water treatment protocol that balances biosecurity with cow comfort. ### Diagnostic Approach and Veterinary Escalation When a cow shows persistent signs of severe heat stress (respiratory rate above 80 breaths per minute for more than two hours, rectal temperature above 39.5°C, inability to stand, or signs of collapse), immediate veterinary intervention is required. The [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) outlines the diagnostic workup for heat stress: confirm rectal temperature, assess hydration status via skin tent and mucous membranes, and evaluate for secondary conditions such as ruminal acidosis or endotoxemia that can mimic or compound heat stress. Blood gas analysis may reveal metabolic alkalosis due to excessive bicarbonate loss from saliva, and serum chemistry can show elevated liver enzymes and creatinine due to dehydration and tissue damage. The [PubMed record 41860825](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41860825/) on the impact of heat stress on the immune system in dairy cattle details that heat-stressed cows experience leukocytosis with a relative lymphopenia, indicating a systemic stress response that can predispose to secondary infections. Uncertainty exists regarding the precise duration of heat exposure that triggers irreversible organ damage. The [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) provides herd-level data on heat stress morbidity, but individual cow response varies. Veterinary escalation should occur early instead of waiting for clear signs of collapse. Vets can provide customized fluid therapy, anti-inflammatory agents, and cooling protocols (e.g., aggressive water drenching or ice water enemas) that go beyond standard barn cooling. They also diagnose concurrent diseases that may be masked by heat stress, such as pneumonia or mastitis, which become more likely when cooling systems malfunction. ### Sustainability of Cooling System Management Cooling systems require substantial water and energy inputs. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) resources emphasize that sustainable dairy operations should evaluate the water footprint of evaporative cooling and explore water recycling options. Sprinkler runoff can be collected and used for manure flushing or field irrigation after treatment. Energy consumption from fans can be reduced by using variable-speed drives and scheduling cycles based on real-time THI data instead of fixed timers. Producers should also consider the lifespan of cooling components, frequent replacement of nozzles and belts generates waste. Regular maintenance extends equipment life and reduces resource use. Veterinary advice can help balance cooling efficacy with environmental stewardship, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. ## Frequently Asked Questions **1. How often should sprinklers cycle during heat stress events?** Sprinkler cycling should be frequent enough to wet the cow's hair coat and allow evaporative cooling between cycles. Typical recommendations suggest 1,3 minutes of wetting followed by 10,15 minutes of drying, but the exact interval depends on barn ventilation and ambient humidity. Consult your system manufacturer and veterinarian for site-specific programming. **2. What is the ideal barn ventilation for cooling system effectiveness?** Fans should generate air speeds of at least 2.5,5.0 meters per second at cow level to facilitate convective and evaporative heat loss. Sidewall openings, ridge vents, and curtain adjustments must be managed to maintain cross,ventilation. Inadequate airflow reduces the benefit of sprinklers. **3. At what temperature,humidity index does heat stress become critical?** A THI of 68 is often cited as the threshold for mild stress, and values above 72 indicate moderate to severe stress. However, high,producing and early,lactation cows may show signs at lower THI. Use THI as a guide but prioritize direct cow observation. **4. Can cooling systems improve fertility in dairy cows?** Yes. Research on seasonal effects and heat stress shows that effective cooling reduces the magnitude of early,embryonic loss and improves conception rates during warm months. Cooling is most beneficial when applied before and during breeding. **5. How can I monitor heat load without relying on weather stations?** On,farm THI monitors placed at cow height provide accurate data. Additionally, daily measurement of respiration rates and rectal temperatures in a sample of 10,20 cows per group gives a direct assessment of the herd's thermal status. **6. What maintenance is required for fan and sprinkler systems?** Inspect fan belts, motors, and blades monthly. Clean sprinkler nozzles to prevent clogging and ensure even water distribution. Draining and flushing the water lines seasonally prevents biofilm formation. Follow the equipment manufacturer's schedule. **7. Are there low,cost cooling strategies that do not require fans?** Yes. Providing shade (natural or artificial), increasing water availability, adjusting feeding times to cooler hours, and using soaking hoses or misters in holding pens can help. These methods are less effective than integrated fan,sprinkler systems but reduce heat load. **8. Should I use fans alone or in combination with sprinklers?** Fans alone provide limited cooling when ambient temperature exceeds skin temperature. Sprinklers followed by fan,driven evaporation are more effective. Use fans continuously during high,heat periods and cycle sprinklers to avoid over,wetting bedding and promoting mastitis. ## Educational Veterinary Notice This information is provided for educational purposes and does not replace professional veterinary judgment. Cooling system design and heat,stress management must be tailored to individual herd characteristics, climate, and facility constraints. Consult a licensed veterinarian for diagnosis, treatment, and preventive protocols specific to your operation. ## Related Farming Guides - [Dairy Cattle Farming Nutrition Housing Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cattle-farming-nutrition-housing-health-signals-and-herd-management) - [Transition Cow Management From Dry Off To Freshening](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/transition-cow-management-from-dry-off-to-freshening) - [Dairy Calf Colostrum Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-calf-colostrum-management) - [Milking Routine And Parlor Hygiene](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/milking-routine-and-parlor-hygiene) - [Dairy Farm Records That Drive Better Decisions](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-farm-records-that-drive-better-decisions) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Evaluating Feed Additives for Dairy Cow Performance](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/evaluating-feed-additives-for-dairy-cow-performance) * [Dairy Barn Fire Safety: Design and Prevention Measures](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-barn-fire-safety-design-prevention) * [Dairy Cow Pregnancy Loss Records and Review](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-pregnancy-loss-records-and-review) ## References and Further Reading - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) - [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) - [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) - [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) - [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.