# Dairy Cow Composting: Manure Management and Bedding


## Key Takeaways

- Dairy cow composting requires a carbon-to-nitrogen (C:N) ratio between 25:1 and 30:1, achieved by blending nitrogen-rich manure (C:N ~15:1-20:1) with carbon-rich bedding like straw (C:N ~80:1) or sawdust (C:N >400:1) to optimize microbial decomposition and minimize ammonia volatilization.
- Maintaining moisture content between 40-60% is critical; excessive dryness inhibits microbial activity, while saturation leads to anaerobic conditions, odor production, and slower decomposition.
- Sustained thermophilic temperatures above 55°C (131°F) for at least 3 consecutive days are essential for significant pathogen reduction, though complete inactivation is not guaranteed, necessitating careful monitoring of herd health if composted solids are used as bedding.
- Composting methods vary in labor, equipment, and capital investment: static piles are low-input but slower with less uniform pathogen reduction, turned windrows offer faster decomposition but require regular turning, and in-vessel/aerated systems provide better control at higher initial costs.
- Bedding recovery from composted manure solids can reduce costs but carries a risk of pathogen persistence, including Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP), requiring vigilance for mastitis and other infections in cows using such bedding.
- Land application of compost requires consideration of nutrient content (especially phosphorus) to prevent runoff and environmental contamination, with incorporation into soil recommended to reduce ammonia loss and odor.

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Dairy cow composting is a controlled biological process that transforms manure, bedding, and other organic farm materials into a stable, humus-like product suitable for soil amendment or bedding reuse. For dairy farmers managing manure and bedding, composting offers a practical method to reduce pathogen loads, manage odors, recycle nutrients, and potentially recover bedding material. This article covers composting methods, carbon-to-nitrogen ratios, bedding recovery, and land application considerations based on available evidence.

## At a Glance: Composting Methods for Dairy Farms

| Composting Method | Typical Setup | Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio Target | Primary Management Consideration |
|---|---|---|---|
| Static pile (passive) | Manure and bedding stacked in windrows, minimal turning | 25:1 to 30:1 | Requires adequate porosity and moisture, slower pathogen reduction |
| Turned windrow | Regular mechanical turning (every 3-7 days) | 25:1 to 30:1 | Faster decomposition, higher labor and equipment needs |
| In-vessel or aerated static pile | Enclosed system or forced aeration via pipes | 25:1 to 30:1 | More consistent temperature control, higher capital cost |

## Core Principles of Dairy Cow Composting

Composting relies on aerobic microorganisms that break down organic matter. The process requires four essential components: carbon-rich materials (bedding, straw, sawdust), nitrogen-rich materials (manure, urine), oxygen, and moisture. The carbon-to-nitrogen ratio (C:N) is a critical management variable. A C:N ratio between 25:1 and 30:1 is commonly recommended for dairy manure composting, as it supports microbial activity and heat generation. If the ratio is too high (excess carbon), decomposition slows. If too low (excess nitrogen), ammonia volatilization and odor problems increase.

Moisture content should be maintained between 40 and 60 percent. Piles that are too dry inhibit microbial activity, piles that are too wet become anaerobic, producing odors and slowing decomposition. Oxygen is supplied through pile porosity, turning, or forced aeration. Temperature monitoring is essential: sustained temperatures above 55°C (131°F) for several days can reduce pathogens and weed seeds. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) provides technical guidance on composting system design and management (www.nrcs.usda.gov).

## Practical Workflow for Dairy Manure Composting

### Step 1: Assess Available Materials and Quantities

Begin by measuring the volume of manure and bedding produced daily. Record the type and amount of bedding used (straw, sawdust, sand, or composted manure solids). This data informs the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio calculation. For example, fresh dairy manure has a C:N ratio of approximately 15:1 to 20:1, while straw is around 80:1 and sawdust can exceed 400:1. Blending these materials to achieve the target ratio is the first management decision.

### Step 2: Construct the Compost Pile or Windrow

Build piles in a well-drained area with a compacted or concrete base to prevent nutrient leaching. Windrow dimensions typically range from 1.2 to 1.8 meters (4 to 6 feet) in height and 3 to 4.5 meters (10 to 15 feet) in width. The pile should be porous enough to allow oxygen penetration. For turned windrows, equipment such as a front-end loader or dedicated compost turner is used.

### Step 3: Monitor Temperature and Moisture

Insert a compost thermometer into the pile at multiple depths (30 to 60 centimeters). Record temperatures daily during the active composting phase. The pile should reach 55°C to 65°C (131°F to 149°F) within the first few days. If temperatures do not rise, check moisture and C:N ratio. Turn the pile when temperatures drop below 40°C (104°F) or when oxygen levels decline. Moisture can be assessed by squeezing a handful of compost: it should feel like a wrung-out sponge.

### Step 4: Turn or Aerate as Needed

Turning frequency depends on the method. For turned windrows, turn every 3 to 7 days during the first two weeks, then less frequently as composting proceeds. For aerated static piles, ensure the aeration system runs intermittently to maintain oxygen levels. Record each turning event and any adjustments to aeration.

### Step 5: Curing and Maturation

After the active composting phase (typically 3 to 8 weeks), allow the material to cure for an additional 4 to 8 weeks. During curing, microbial activity slows, and the compost stabilizes. The finished compost should have an earthy smell, a dark brown color, and a temperature near ambient. It should not reheat significantly after turning.

## Options and Tradeoffs in Composting Systems

### Static Pile vs. Turned Windrow

Static piles require less labor and equipment but may not achieve uniform pathogen reduction. Turned windrows provide better aeration and faster decomposition but demand regular attention and machinery. The choice depends on farm size, labor availability, and equipment access. The NRCS offers design standards for both systems (www.nrcs.usda.gov).

### Bedding Recovery from Composted Manure Solids

Some dairy farms separate manure solids and compost them for reuse as bedding. Composted manure solids bedding can reduce bedding costs and provide a consistent material. However, pathogen survival is a concern. The Merck Veterinary Manual notes that proper composting temperatures (above 55°C for several days) can reduce pathogens, but complete elimination is not guaranteed (www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition). Research on Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) antibodies in high-producing dairy herds indicates that MAP can persist in manure, and composting may not fully inactivate it (PubMed, 2022, PMID 36251154). Farmers using composted manure solids as bedding should monitor herd health for mastitis and other infections.

### Land Application of Compost

Composted dairy manure is a valuable soil amendment that adds organic matter and nutrients. Application rates should be based on soil tests and crop nutrient needs. Overapplication can lead to nutrient runoff, particularly phosphorus, which can harm water quality. The NRCS provides nutrient management planning guidance (www.nrcs.usda.gov). Compost should be incorporated into soil soon after application to reduce ammonia volatilization and odor.

## Observations and Measurements

### Temperature Records

Maintain a log of pile temperatures at multiple locations and depths. Record the date, time, ambient temperature, and pile temperature. A typical active composting period with turned windrows shows a rapid temperature rise to 55°C to 65°C within 3 to 5 days, followed by a gradual decline. If temperatures do not reach 55°C, check moisture and C:N ratio. If temperatures exceed 70°C (158°F), microbial activity may be inhibited, and turning or aeration should be increased.

### Moisture Monitoring

Use a moisture meter or the squeeze test. Record moisture content weekly. Adjust by adding water if too dry or adding dry carbon materials (straw, sawdust) if too wet. Heavy rainfall can saturate piles, cover with a tarp or roof if needed.

### Odor Assessment

Odor is a key indicator of composting conditions. Ammonia or rotten egg smells suggest anaerobic conditions or excess nitrogen. Record odor intensity and type. If odors persist, increase aeration, adjust C:N ratio, or reduce pile size.

### Pathogen Reduction Indicators

While routine pathogen testing is not practical on most farms, temperature monitoring serves as a proxy. Sustained temperatures above 55°C for at least 3 consecutive days are associated with significant reduction of many pathogens, including Escherichia coli. A study on cattle feces composting found that addition of organic waste under high-moisture conditions affected E. coli reduction (PubMed, 2006, PMID 16182524). However, complete sterilization is not achieved. Farmers should assume that compost may still contain some pathogens and handle it accordingly.

## Records and Measurements

Maintain a composting log with the following fields:

- Date
- Pile or windrow identifier
- Materials added (type, volume, estimated C:N)
- Initial C:N ratio (calculated)
- Temperature at three depths (top, middle, bottom)
- Moisture content (visual or meter)
- Turning or aeration event
- Odor assessment
- Weather conditions
- Any corrective actions taken

This record supports management decisions and can be used for regulatory compliance or nutrient management planning.

## Quality and Welfare Controls

### Animal Health Considerations

If composted manure solids are used as bedding, monitor cows for clinical mastitis, [somatic cell](/blog/guides/somatic-cell) count trends, and lameness. The Merck Veterinary Manual advises that bedding materials should be dry, clean, and free of pathogens (www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition). Compost that has not reached adequate temperatures may harbor pathogens that can cause intramammary infections. A symposium on future housing for dairy cattle discusses bedding management as a factor in cow comfort and health (Journal of Dairy Science, 2020, PMID 32331875). If mastitis rates increase after switching to composted bedding, reconsider the composting process or bedding source.

### Worker Safety

Composting involves heavy equipment, dust, and potential exposure to pathogens and gases. Workers should wear appropriate personal protective equipment (PPE), including gloves, dust masks, and eye protection. Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide can accumulate in enclosed or poorly ventilated areas. Provide training on safe equipment operation and emergency procedures.

### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention)

Compost applied to crop land can introduce pathogens to the food chain if not properly managed. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare, including manure management practices that affect food safety (www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). Research on Salmonella in vegetable farms fertilized with animal manure found that Salmonella can persist in soil and on crops (Scientific Reports, 2024, PMID 39160213). Composting that achieves sustained high temperatures reduces but does not eliminate this risk. Follow recommended waiting periods between compost application and harvest for crops intended for human consumption.

### Biosecurity

Composting can reduce pathogen loads, but it is not a substitute for biosecurity. Separate composting areas from livestock housing and feed storage. Do not compost carcasses or materials from sick animals unless specifically designed for that purpose. The FAO Animal Production and Health division provides guidance on biosecurity in livestock systems (www.fao.org/animal-production/en). If a disease outbreak occurs, consult a veterinarian before spreading compost on fields.

## Common Failure Patterns

### Failure to Reach Thermophilic Temperatures

Causes include insufficient pile size (too small to retain heat), low moisture, high C:N ratio (too much carbon), or low C:N ratio (too much nitrogen). Solution: adjust pile size to at least 1 cubic meter, add water if dry, and balance C:N ratio.

### Persistent Odors

Anaerobic conditions from overwatering, compaction, or insufficient aeration. Solution: turn the pile, add dry carbon material, or reduce pile height.

### Slow Decomposition

Low temperatures, low moisture, or high C:N ratio. Solution: check moisture and C:N ratio, turn the pile, and add nitrogen-rich material if needed.

### Pathogen Survival

Inadequate temperature or duration. Solution: ensure pile reaches 55°C for at least 3 consecutive days. If this is not achieved, extend composting time or adjust management.

### Nutrient Loss

Excessive turning or aeration can lead to nitrogen loss as ammonia. Solution: minimize turning frequency once temperatures stabilize, and incorporate compost soon after land application.

## Limitations and Professional Escalation Criteria

Composting is not suitable for all dairy farms. Farms with limited land, labor, or equipment may find it impractical. Sand-laden manure cannot be composted effectively because sand does not decompose and can damage equipment. Composting also requires a significant area for piles and curing.

Escalate to a professional (veterinarian, extension specialist, or NRCS technical service provider) if:

- Herd health problems (mastitis, lameness, or infectious disease) increase after using composted bedding.
- Compost piles consistently fail to reach thermophilic temperatures despite corrective actions.
- Odor complaints from neighbors or regulatory agencies arise.
- Nutrient management plans need updating to account for compost application.
- A disease outbreak occurs and compost may be contaminated.

The Merck Veterinary Manual recommends consulting a veterinarian for herd health issues related to manure management (www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition). The NRCS can provide technical assistance for composting system design and nutrient management (www.nrcs.usda.gov).

## Practical Decision Framework for Selecting a Dairy Composting System

Selecting the appropriate composting system for a dairy operation requires a structured evaluation of farm-specific constraints and objectives. A systematic decision framework helps farmers avoid costly mismatches between system capabilities and operational realities. The following framework integrates five assessment domains: available resources, labor capacity, regulatory requirements, end-use goals, and risk tolerance.

### Step 1: Resource Inventory and Constraint Mapping

Begin by documenting the following farm parameters in a written assessment:

**Daily manure production.** Estimate based on herd size and average body weight. A 600-kilogram lactating cow produces approximately 60 to 70 kilograms of manure per day. Record the total daily volume in cubic meters or tons.

**Bedding material type and volume.** Measure the volume of bedding used per day or per week. Note the carbon-to-nitrogen ratio of each bedding type. Straw typically has a C:N ratio of 80:1 to 100:1, sawdust ranges from 200:1 to 500:1, and sand has negligible carbon content and cannot be composted effectively.

**Available land area for composting.** Measure the area suitable for pile construction, turning, and curing. A turned windrow system requires approximately 0.5 to 1.0 hectares per 100 cows for active composting and curing. Static piles require less space but need longer curing periods.

**Equipment access.** List available machinery such as front-end loaders, tractors with bucket attachments, or dedicated compost turners. If no turning equipment is available, static pile or aerated static pile systems are more appropriate.

**Labor availability.** Estimate the hours per week that can be dedicated to composting tasks. Turned windrow systems require 2 to 4 hours per week per 100 cows during active composting. Static systems require less than 1 hour per week.

**Water access.** Ensure a reliable water source is available within 50 meters of the composting area for moisture adjustment during dry periods.

**Regulatory constraints.** Check local regulations regarding setback distances from property lines, water bodies, and residences. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service provides technical guidance on composting system design that meets common regulatory standards (www.nrcs.usda.gov).

### Step 2: System Selection Matrix

Use the following decision matrix to match farm characteristics with appropriate composting methods. Score each system on a scale of 1 (poor fit) to 5 (excellent fit) for each criterion.

| Criterion | Static Pile | Turned Windrow | Aerated Static Pile |
|-----------|-------------|----------------|---------------------|
| Low labor availability | 5 | 2 | 4 |
| Limited equipment | 5 | 3 | 4 |
| High pathogen reduction need | 2 | 4 | 5 |
| Rapid composting timeline | 2 | 4 | 5 |
| Low capital investment | 5 | 4 | 2 |
| Odor-sensitive location | 2 | 3 | 5 |
| Bedding recovery goal | 3 | 4 | 5 |
| Sand-laden manure | 1 | 1 | 1 |

Add the scores for each system. The system with the highest total score is the best initial choice. For example, a farm with low labor, limited equipment, and low capital investment would score static pile highest. A farm needing rapid composting and high pathogen reduction with available labor would score turned windrow or aerated static pile higher.

### Step 3: Carbon-to-Nitrogen Ratio Calculation and Adjustment

After selecting a system, calculate the required carbon-to-nitrogen ratio for the specific materials available. Use the following formula:

Target C:N ratio = (Weight of material A x C:N ratio of A) + (Weight of material B x C:N ratio of B) / (Weight of material A + Weight of material B)

For example, if using fresh dairy manure (C:N 15:1) and straw (C:N 80:1) to achieve a target of 30:1:

Let X = weight of manure and Y = weight of straw.
(15X + 80Y) / (X + Y) = 30
15X + 80Y = 30X + 30Y
50Y = 15X
X/Y = 50/15 = 3.33

This means for every 3.33 kilograms of manure, add 1 kilogram of straw. Adjust the ratio based on actual material analysis if available. Record the calculated ratio and the actual weights used for each pile.

### Step 4: Monitoring Protocol and Corrective Action Triggers

Establish a monitoring schedule with specific corrective action triggers. The following table outlines key parameters, monitoring frequency, and action thresholds.

| Parameter | Monitoring Frequency | Target Range | Corrective Action Trigger | Action |
|-----------|---------------------|--------------|--------------------------|--------|
| Temperature | Daily during active phase | 55-65°C | Below 55°C for 2 consecutive days | Check moisture and C:N ratio, turn pile |
| Temperature | Daily during active phase | 55-65°C | Above 70°C | Turn or aerate immediately |
| Moisture | Twice weekly | 40-60% | Below 40% | Add water evenly |
| Moisture | Twice weekly | 40-60% | Above 60% | Add dry carbon material or turn |
| Odor | Daily | Earthy smell | Ammonia or rotten egg odor | Increase aeration, adjust C:N ratio |
| Oxygen (if measured) | Weekly | >5% | Below 5% | Turn or increase aeration frequency |

Record all monitoring data in a logbook or digital spreadsheet. Include the date, time, pile identifier, parameter value, and any corrective action taken.

### Step 5: End-Use Quality Assessment

Before using compost for land application or bedding, conduct a quality assessment using the following criteria:

**Maturity test.** Place a handful of compost in a sealed plastic bag for 24 hours. If the bag inflates or emits a strong ammonia smell, the compost is not fully mature and requires additional curing.

**Temperature stability.** The compost temperature should be within 5°C of ambient temperature after turning. If the pile reheats significantly, continue curing.

**Visual inspection.** Finished compost should be dark brown to black, crumbly, and free of recognizable bedding material. Large woody particles may remain but should be well-decomposed.

**Moisture content.** Squeeze a handful of compost. It should hold its shape when released but not drip water. If it crumbles, it is too dry for bedding but acceptable for land application.

**Pathogen reduction verification.** While routine pathogen testing is not practical on most farms, temperature records serve as a proxy. The Merck Veterinary Manual notes that sustained temperatures above 55°C for several days can reduce pathogens, but complete elimination is not guaranteed (www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition). If compost is intended for bedding, consider periodic testing for coliform bacteria or Salmonella through a veterinary diagnostic laboratory.

### Record System for Composting Operations

Maintain a comprehensive record system that supports both management decisions and regulatory compliance. The following fields should be recorded for each pile or windrow:

**Pile identification.** Assign a unique identifier (e.g., Pile 2025-01) and record the construction date.

**Material inputs.** Record the type, weight or volume, and estimated C:N ratio of each material added. Include manure, bedding, and any amendments.

**Initial C:N ratio.** Calculate and record the target and actual C:N ratio.

**Temperature log.** Record daily temperatures at three depths (top 30 cm, middle, and bottom 60 cm) during the active phase. Record weekly during curing.

**Moisture log.** Record moisture content twice weekly using a moisture meter or squeeze test.

**Turning and aeration log.** Record the date and time of each turning event or aeration cycle. Note any equipment used.

**Odor assessment.** Record odor type and intensity on a scale of 1 (no odor) to 5 (strong odor). Note any complaints.

**Weather conditions.** Record daily rainfall, temperature, and wind conditions that may affect pile management.

**Corrective actions.** Document any adjustments made, including water addition, carbon material addition, turning frequency changes, or pile relocation.

**End-use testing.** Record results of maturity tests, temperature stability checks, and any pathogen testing.

This record system provides documentation for nutrient management planning and can be used to demonstrate compliance with regulatory requirements. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service offers templates for composting records (www.nrcs.usda.gov).

### Common Failure Patterns in System Selection

**Overestimating labor capacity.** Farmers often choose turned windrow systems without accounting for seasonal labor demands such as planting and harvest. If labor is limited during critical periods, consider a static pile or aerated system that requires less frequent attention.

**Underestimating capital costs.** Aerated static pile systems require blowers, piping, and electrical infrastructure. Initial costs can range from 10,000 to 50,000 USD depending on scale. Factor in maintenance and electricity costs when comparing systems.

**Ignoring regulatory setbacks.** Some farms have limited land that does not meet minimum setback distances from property lines or water bodies. Check local regulations before constructing piles. The NRCS provides guidance on setback requirements (www.nrcs.usda.gov).

**Using sand-laden manure.** Sand does not decompose and accumulates in compost piles, reducing porosity and damaging turning equipment. Farms using sand bedding should separate sand from manure before composting or consider alternative manure management systems.

**Neglecting curing space.** Active composting requires less space than curing. Plan for curing area equal to or greater than the active composting area. Finished compost can be stockpiled for later use.

### Professional Escalation Criteria

Escalate to a professional if any of the following conditions occur:

- Compost piles consistently fail to reach 55°C despite correct C:N ratio, moisture, and aeration. This may indicate a material quality issue or equipment malfunction.
- Herd health problems such as increased mastitis, lameness, or infectious disease appear after switching to composted bedding. The Merck Veterinary Manual recommends consulting a veterinarian for herd health issues related to manure management (www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition).
- Odor complaints from neighbors or regulatory agencies persist despite corrective actions. An extension specialist or NRCS technical service provider can assess the system and recommend modifications.
- Nutrient management plans need updating to account for compost application rates and nutrient content. A certified crop advisor or NRCS planner can assist.
- A disease outbreak occurs and compost may be contaminated. Consult a veterinarian and local agricultural authorities before spreading compost on fields.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations provides guidance on biosecurity in livestock systems that can inform composting management during disease outbreaks (www.fao.org/animal-production/en).

## Frequently Asked Questions

### What is the ideal carbon-to-nitrogen ratio for dairy manure composting?

The ideal C:N ratio for dairy manure composting is between 25:1 and 30:1. This range supports microbial activity and heat generation. Fresh dairy manure has a C:N ratio of about 15:1 to 20:1, so carbon-rich materials like straw or sawdust must be added to achieve the target.

### How long does it take to compost dairy manure?

Active composting typically takes 3 to 8 weeks, depending on the method, temperature, and management. Curing adds another 4 to 8 weeks. Total time from pile construction to finished compost is usually 2 to 4 months.

### Can composted manure solids be used as dairy cow bedding?

Yes, some dairy farms use composted manure solids as bedding. However, proper composting temperatures (above 55°C for several days) are necessary to reduce pathogen loads. Monitor herd health for mastitis and other infections if using this bedding.

### What temperature should a compost pile reach to kill pathogens?

Sustained temperatures above 55°C (131°F) for at least 3 consecutive days are associated with significant reduction of many pathogens. Complete sterilization is not achieved, so compost should still be handled with care.

### How do I know if my compost pile has too much moisture?

Squeeze a handful of compost. If water drips freely, the pile is too wet. If it feels dry and crumbly, it is too dry. Ideal moisture is 40 to 60 percent, feeling like a wrung-out sponge.

### What causes ammonia smell in compost?

Ammonia odor indicates excess nitrogen or anaerobic conditions. This often occurs when the C:N ratio is too low (too much manure relative to carbon). Add carbon-rich materials like straw or sawdust and increase aeration.

### Is it safe to apply compost to vegetable crops?

Compost that has reached thermophilic temperatures reduces pathogen loads but does not eliminate all risks. Follow recommended waiting periods between application and harvest. Research has found Salmonella can persist in manure-fertilized soil (Scientific Reports, 2024, PMID 39160213).

### When should I call a veterinarian about composting issues?

Call a veterinarian if herd health problems such as increased mastitis, lameness, or infectious disease appear after using composted bedding. Also consult a vet if a disease outbreak occurs and compost may be contaminated.

## Related Farming Guides

- [Beef Cattle Manure Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-manure-management)
- [Dairy Farm Manure Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-farm-manure-management)
- [Dairy Cow Cooling System Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-cooling-system-management)
- [Beef Cattle Backgrounding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-backgrounding-management)
- [Beef Cattle Mud Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-mud-management)

## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

* [Evaluating Feed Additives for Dairy Cow Performance](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/evaluating-feed-additives-for-dairy-cow-performance)
* [Dairy Barn Fire Safety: Design and Prevention Measures](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-barn-fire-safety-design-prevention)
* [Dairy Cow Pregnancy Loss Records and Review](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-pregnancy-loss-records-and-review)


## References and Further Reading

- [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/)
- [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition)
- [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
- [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library.
- [Symposium review: Future of housing for dairy cattle.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32331875). Journal of dairy science, 2020.
- [Presence of antibodies against Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis in Brazilian high-producing dairy herds.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36251154). Brazilian journal of microbiology : [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology], 2022.
- [Occurrence and dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes in the Yellow River basin: focused on family farms.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38316741). Environmental science and pollution research international, 2024.
- [Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Salmonella isolated from vegetable farms fertilized with animal manure in Addis Ababa Ethiopia.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39160213). Scientific reports, 2024.
- [Farm-level associations with the shedding of Salmonella and antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella in U.S. dairy cattle.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22870913). Foodborne pathogens and disease, 2012.
- [Effect of addition of organic waste on reduction of Escherichia coli during cattle feces composting under high-moisture condition.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16182524). Bioresource technology, 2006.

> This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.