# Veal Production Systems: Housing, Nutrition, and Welfare ## Key Takeaways - Veal production systems vary significantly, with conventional (white veal) utilizing individual stalls and milk replacer-only diets, while group and pasture-based systems incorporate starter grains, roughage, and offer more behavioral opportunities, each presenting distinct welfare challenges such as restricted movement and social isolation versus disease transmission and environmental exposure. - Housing environment, particularly ventilation, is critical for preventing respiratory disease, a major cause of morbidity and mortality; ammonia levels above 10 ppm and temperatures outside the 10-20°C comfort zone negatively impact calf health and growth efficiency. - Nutrition is foundational, with milk replacer formulations (20-28% protein, 15-25% fat) requiring precise mixing and feeding temperatures (40-45°C for mixing, 38-40°C for feeding) to ensure proper digestion; deliberate iron restriction in white veal systems necessitates regular hemoglobin monitoring (target > 7 g/dL) to prevent anemia. - Welfare assessment requires monitoring behavioral needs, health status, and environmental conditions; abnormal behaviors like tongue rolling, lameness, and signs of respiratory or digestive distress necessitate prompt intervention and veterinary consultation. - Comprehensive record-keeping, including growth performance (average daily gain), feed/water intake, health events, and environmental parameters, is essential for effective management, identifying trends, and demonstrating compliance with welfare standards. - Common failure patterns include respiratory disease outbreaks exacerbated by poor ventilation and stress, diarrhea due to nutritional or hygiene issues, anemia in white veal systems, and lameness linked to flooring; antimicrobial use must be judicious to mitigate resistance development. --- Veal production involves raising young male dairy calves and some beef-cross calves for meat, typically harvested between 16 and 24 weeks of age. The primary intent of this article is to provide producers considering or operating veal operations with practical information on housing types, feeding programs, and welfare standards. This guide covers concrete management decisions, observations, records, limitations, and professional-escalation criteria based on available evidence. Veal production systems vary widely, from individual pens to group housing, and feeding programs range from milk replacer-only diets to those incorporating grain and roughage. Welfare considerations are central to system design and daily management, affecting calf health, growth performance, and consumer acceptance. ## At a Glance: Veal Production System Overview The table below summarizes the main veal production system types, their typical housing, feeding approach, and key welfare considerations. This comparison helps producers evaluate options based on their resources, market requirements, and animal care goals. | System Type | Typical Housing | Feeding Program | Key Welfare Considerations | |-------------|-----------------|-----------------|---------------------------| | Conventional (white veal) | Individual stalls or pens, slatted floors | Milk replacer only, limited iron intake | Restricted movement, social isolation, iron deficiency anemia risk | | Group housing (pink veal) | Group pens with solid or slatted floors, bedding optional | Milk replacer plus starter grain and roughage | Social contact, more movement space, need for group management | | Pasture-based (red veal) | Pasture or dry lot with shelter | Milk or milk replacer plus forage and grain | Outdoor access, natural behaviors, parasite exposure, weather challenges | ## Housing Systems for Veal Calves Housing directly affects calf health, behavior, and growth. The choice of housing system involves tradeoffs between labor efficiency, capital cost, animal welfare, and regulatory compliance. Producers must assess their specific conditions, including climate, available facilities, and market specifications. The main critical factors affecting the welfare of beef cattle and veal calves raised under intensive rearing systems have been reviewed, identifying housing, nutrition, health, and behavior as key areas (Italian Journal of Animal Science, 2009, https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2009.s1.67). ### Individual Housing Individual housing includes stalls or pens that separate calves from one another. This system allows close monitoring of individual feed intake, health status, and fecal consistency. Calves are less likely to transmit infectious diseases through direct contact. However, individual housing restricts movement and social interaction, which can affect behavioral development. Common individual housing designs include wooden or metal stalls with slatted floors to allow waste to pass through. Bedding may be limited or absent in some conventional systems to maintain cleanliness and reduce labor. Producers using individual housing must ensure adequate space for the calf to stand, lie down, and groom itself without restriction. Observations of lying behavior, leg swelling, and joint stiffness provide useful records for assessing housing adequacy. A scoping review of the impact of housing systems and environmental features on beef cattle welfare has examined how housing design affects animal outcomes (Animals, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10040565). Producers should consider flooring material, space allowance, and environmental enrichment when designing individual housing. ### Group Housing Group housing systems house calves together in pens, typically with 4 to 15 animals per group. Group pens can have solid floors with bedding or slatted floors without bedding. Bedding materials such as straw or wood shavings improve comfort and allow natural lying behaviors. Group housing provides calves with social contact and more space for movement, which supports normal behavioral development. Management challenges in group housing include monitoring individual feed intake, controlling disease spread, and managing social hierarchies that can lead to bullying or competition for feed. Producers must provide sufficient feeder space and water access to reduce competition. Observations of feeding behavior, aggression, and lying patterns help identify welfare problems early. Records of group composition, health treatments, and growth rates support management decisions. Group housing requires careful attention to group stability. Mixing unfamiliar calves can cause stress and aggression, increasing disease risk. Producers should introduce calves to groups gradually and maintain stable groups whenever possible. The impact of housing systems on welfare has been studied across different production contexts, with group housing generally supporting more natural behaviors when properly managed (Animals, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10040565). ### Housing Environment and Ventilation Regardless of housing type, ventilation is critical for calf health. Poor air quality increases the risk of respiratory disease, a major cause of morbidity and mortality in veal calves. The production significance of bovine respiratory disease lesions in slaughtered beef cattle has been documented, highlighting the economic impact of respiratory health problems (Animals, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10101770). Adequate ventilation removes moisture, ammonia, and airborne pathogens while providing fresh air without drafts. Producers should measure and record ammonia levels, humidity, and temperature in [calf housing](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/calf-housing-hutches-pens-group-systems). Ammonia concentrations above 10 parts per million can irritate respiratory tissues and increase disease susceptibility. Temperature management is also important. Calves are most comfortable in temperatures between 10 and 20 degrees Celsius, depending on age and bedding. Heat stress or cold stress reduces feed efficiency and growth rates. Ventilation system design depends on climate, building type, and housing density. Natural ventilation using ridge vents and side curtains works well in many climates. Mechanical ventilation with fans and inlets provides more control in enclosed buildings. Producers should inspect ventilation systems weekly and clean fans and inlets regularly to maintain performance. ### Flooring and Bedding Flooring type affects calf comfort, cleanliness, and health. Slatted floors allow waste to pass through, keeping the lying area cleaner but potentially causing discomfort or injury. Solid floors with bedding provide cushioning and insulation but require more labor for cleaning and bedding management. Bedding materials include straw, wood shavings, sawdust, and sand. Each material has different absorbency, cost, and disposal characteristics. Producers should provide enough bedding to keep calves clean and dry, especially in cold weather. Wet or soiled bedding increases disease risk and reduces calf comfort. Observations of lying behavior, cleanliness scores, and lameness help assess flooring and bedding adequacy. Records of bedding type, amount used, and frequency of replacement support management decisions. Producers should adjust bedding practices based on weather, calf age, and housing type. ## Feeding Programs for Veal Calves Nutrition is the foundation of veal production, directly influencing growth rate, carcass quality, and calf health. Feeding programs vary by system type and target market. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides general guidance on management and nutrition for cattle, including calves (https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition). Producers should consult this resource for detailed nutritional requirements and feeding protocols. ### Milk Replacer Feeding Milk replacer is the primary feed for most veal calves, especially in conventional white veal systems. Milk replacer formulations vary in protein and fat content, typically containing 20 to 28 percent protein and 15 to 25 percent fat. Calves are fed two to three times daily, with total daily intake based on body weight and growth targets. Milk replacer mixing and temperature are important for calf acceptance and digestion. Water temperature should be between 40 and 45 degrees Celsius for proper mixing. Feeding temperature should be consistent, around 38 to 40 degrees Celsius. Cold milk replacer reduces intake and can cause digestive upset. Feeding equipment must be cleaned thoroughly after each feeding to prevent bacterial growth. Nipples, buckets, and mixing equipment should be washed with hot water and sanitized regularly. Records of cleaning procedures and equipment condition support hygiene management. ### Iron Management in White Veal Systems Iron intake is deliberately limited in white veal production to produce pale meat, which is preferred in some markets. This practice requires careful management to avoid clinical iron deficiency anemia. Producers must monitor hemoglobin levels and calf vigor to ensure calves remain healthy while achieving the desired meat color. Blood sampling for hemoglobin measurement should be performed regularly, typically every two to four weeks. Hemoglobin levels below 7 grams per deciliter indicate anemia and require intervention. Producers should work with their veterinarian to establish monitoring protocols and intervention thresholds. Records of hemoglobin levels, feed intake, growth rates, and clinical signs support nutritional management. Calves showing signs of anemia, such as pale mucous membranes, lethargy, or reduced feed intake, require immediate veterinary assessment. Severe anemia can be fatal and may necessitate changes to the feeding program. ### Starter Grain and Roughage In pink veal and red veal systems, calves receive starter grain and roughage in addition to milk replacer. Starter grains provide energy and protein to support rumen development. Roughage sources such as hay or straw promote rumen function and reduce the risk of digestive disorders. The transition from a milk-based diet to a mixed diet must be gradual to prevent digestive upset. Starter grain formulations should contain 18 to 22 percent protein and adequate energy for growth. Calves typically begin consuming starter grain at 2 to 4 weeks of age. Intake increases gradually as rumen development progresses. Producers should offer fresh starter grain daily and remove uneaten feed to maintain palatability. Roughage should be introduced after calves are consuming starter grain consistently. Hay quality matters. Fine-stemmed, leafy hay is more digestible than coarse, stemmy hay. Straw can be used as a roughage source but provides less nutrition than hay. Producers should observe fecal consistency daily as an indicator of digestive health. ### Water Access Clean, fresh water must be available at all times, even for calves receiving milk replacer. Water supports digestion, thermoregulation, and overall health. Inadequate water intake can lead to dehydration, reduced feed intake, and poor growth. Water flow rates and cleanliness should be checked daily. Waterers should be cleaned regularly to prevent biofilm buildup and bacterial contamination. In cold weather, water temperature should be maintained above freezing to encourage intake. Records of water consumption are useful for identifying health problems. Sick calves often reduce water intake before showing other signs. A sudden drop in water consumption in a group of calves may indicate a water quality problem or disease outbreak. ## Welfare Standards and Assessment Welfare in veal production has received significant attention from regulators, retailers, and consumers. Producers must understand and comply with applicable welfare standards while implementing practices that support calf health and behavior. The main critical factors affecting the welfare of beef cattle and veal calves raised under intensive rearing systems have been reviewed, identifying housing, nutrition, health, and behavior as key areas (Italian Journal of Animal Science, 2009, https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2009.s1.67). ### Behavioral Needs Calves have behavioral needs that include social contact, grooming, lying comfort, and the ability to express normal movements. Individual housing restricts many of these behaviors, which can lead to abnormal behaviors such as tongue rolling, excessive licking of surfaces, or repetitive movements. Group housing allows more natural behavior but requires careful management to prevent aggression and disease spread. Producers should observe calves for signs of poor welfare, including abnormal behaviors, lethargy, poor coat condition, and reluctance to move. Records of behavioral observations help identify welfare problems and guide management changes. Enrichment items such as brushes, toys, or chewable objects can reduce abnormal behaviors in both individual and group housing. The impact of housing systems on welfare has been examined in a scoping review that considered how environmental features affect cattle behavior and health (Animals, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10040565). Producers should use this evidence to inform housing design and management decisions. ### Health Monitoring Regular health monitoring is essential for welfare and productivity. Common health problems in veal calves include diarrhea, respiratory disease, joint infections, and anemia. Early detection and treatment reduce suffering and improve outcomes. Producers should establish a health monitoring protocol that includes daily observation, regular weighing, and record keeping. Daily observations should include checking for coughing, nasal discharge, ocular discharge, diarrhea, lameness, and abnormal behavior. Calves showing signs of illness should be examined promptly and treated according to veterinary protocols. Sick calves may need isolation to prevent disease spread and allow closer monitoring. Veterinary involvement is critical for developing health management plans, diagnosing disease, and treating sick calves. Producers should have a written veterinary health plan that covers vaccination, parasite control, and treatment protocols. Records of health events, treatments, and outcomes support continuous improvement and demonstrate compliance with welfare standards. ### Pain Management Painful procedures such as dehorning, castration, and tail docking should be performed with appropriate pain management. The use of local anesthetics and anti-inflammatory drugs reduces pain and stress. Producers should consult their veterinarian for pain management protocols that meet regulatory requirements and welfare standards. Records of pain management procedures support accountability and animal care quality. Producers should document the procedure performed, the drugs used, the person performing the procedure, and any adverse reactions. Training records for staff performing procedures should also be maintained. ### Welfare Assessment Protocols Systematic welfare assessment helps producers identify problems and track improvements. Assessment protocols typically include measures of behavior, health, and environment. Producers can use standardized assessment tools or develop their own based on their specific system and goals. Common welfare indicators include body condition score, cleanliness score, lameness score, and respiratory disease score. Behavioral indicators include lying time, feeding behavior, and abnormal behaviors. Environmental indicators include air quality, temperature, humidity, and space allowance. Records of welfare assessments should be reviewed regularly to identify trends and guide management changes. Producers should set targets for each indicator and take corrective action when targets are not met. ## Practical Implementation Steps Implementing a veal production system requires careful planning and ongoing management. The following steps provide a framework for producers to assess their current operations or plan new facilities. ### Step 1: Assess Facilities and Resources Evaluate existing housing, ventilation, feeding equipment, and water systems. Identify limitations that could affect calf health or welfare. Consider climate conditions, labor availability, and budget for improvements. The Natural Resources Conservation Service provides technical assistance for agricultural facilities, including animal housing (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/). Producers can consult NRCS for guidance on facility design and environmental management. ### Step 2: Select Housing System Choose a housing system that matches your production goals, market requirements, and resources. Consider the tradeoffs between individual and group housing, including labor needs, disease control, and welfare outcomes. If converting from one system to another, plan the transition carefully to minimize stress on calves and staff. ### Step 3: Develop Feeding Program Work with a nutritionist or veterinarian to develop a feeding program that meets calf nutritional requirements and market specifications. Select milk replacer formulations appropriate for your system type. Plan the transition to starter grain and roughage if applicable. Establish feeding schedules and protocols for monitoring intake. ### Step 4: Establish Health and Welfare Protocols Develop written protocols for health monitoring, disease prevention, treatment, and pain management. Train staff on observation techniques, record keeping, and emergency procedures. Schedule regular veterinary visits for herd health reviews and protocol updates. ### Step 5: Implement Record Keeping Maintain records of calf identification, feed intake, growth rates, health events, treatments, and mortality. Records support management decisions, demonstrate compliance, and provide data for continuous improvement. Review records regularly to identify trends and problems. ## Records and Measurements Accurate records are essential for managing veal production systems. The following measurements and records support decision making and welfare assessment. ### Growth Performance Measure body weight at arrival, weekly or biweekly, and at harvest. Calculate average daily gain to assess feeding program effectiveness. Compare growth rates to targets and industry benchmarks. Poor growth may indicate nutritional problems, health issues, or environmental stress. ### Feed and Water Intake Record feed type, amount offered, and amount consumed daily. Monitor water consumption, especially during hot weather or illness. Changes in feed or water intake often precede clinical signs of disease. ### Health Events Record all health observations, treatments, and outcomes. Include date, calf identification, clinical signs, diagnosis, treatment administered, and response. Track mortality and causes of death. Analyze health records to identify patterns and improve prevention. ### Environmental Conditions Measure and record temperature, humidity, and ammonia levels in housing areas. Monitor ventilation system performance. Environmental records help identify conditions that increase disease risk or reduce welfare. ### Treatment and Withdrawal Records Maintain accurate records of all treatments, including drug name, dose, route, duration, and withdrawal period. Withdrawal periods must be observed to prevent drug residues in meat. The issue of antimicrobial residues in beef production systems has been identified as a One Health challenge (Veterinary Research Communications, 2023, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35641718). Producers must follow label instructions and veterinary guidance for all treatments. ## Common Failure Patterns Understanding common failure patterns helps producers prevent problems and respond effectively when they occur. ### Respiratory Disease Outbreaks Respiratory disease is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in veal calves. Outbreaks often follow stress events such as transport, mixing, or weather changes. Poor ventilation, high stocking density, and inadequate colostrum intake increase risk. The production significance of bovine respiratory disease lesions in slaughtered beef cattle underscores the economic importance of prevention (Animals, 2020, https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10101770). Producers should monitor for coughing, nasal discharge, fever, and reduced feed intake. Early treatment improves outcomes and reduces spread. ### Diarrhea and Digestive Disorders Diarrhea is common in young calves and can result from nutritional causes, infectious agents, or environmental stress. Overfeeding milk replacer, rapid diet changes, and poor hygiene increase risk. Producers should observe fecal consistency daily and isolate affected calves. Records of diarrhea cases help identify management factors that contribute to outbreaks. ### Anemia in White Veal Systems Iron deficiency anemia is a risk in white veal production due to deliberate iron restriction. Clinical signs include pale mucous membranes, lethargy, reduced feed intake, and poor growth. Producers should monitor hemoglobin levels and adjust iron intake as needed. Severe anemia requires veterinary intervention and may necessitate changes to the feeding program. ### Lameness and Joint Infections Lameness can result from flooring conditions, injury, or infection. Slatted floors that are slippery or have gaps that trap hooves increase injury risk. Joint infections often follow navel infections or other bacterial entry points. Producers should observe calves for lameness daily and provide treatment promptly. Records of lameness cases help identify flooring or management problems. ### Antimicrobial Resistance Concerns The use of antimicrobials in veal production requires careful management to prevent the development of antimicrobial resistance. Phenotypic and genotypic assessment of antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli from cattle populations has been studied, highlighting the importance of prudent antimicrobial use (Journal of Food Protection, 2022, https://doi.org/10.4315/JFP-21-430). Producers should use antimicrobials only when necessary, under veterinary guidance, and with appropriate record keeping. ## Limitations and Professional Escalation Criteria Producers must recognize the limitations of their knowledge and facilities and know when to seek professional help. The following criteria indicate situations that require veterinary or other professional involvement. ### Veterinary Escalation Contact a veterinarian when: - Mortality exceeds expected levels for your system - Multiple calves show signs of respiratory disease or diarrhea - Calves fail to respond to standard treatments - Calves show signs of severe anemia, neurological problems, or unexplained weight loss - You need assistance developing health protocols or diagnosing disease outbreaks ### Nutritional Consultation Consult a nutritionist or veterinarian when: - Growth rates fall below targets for more than two weeks - Calves show signs of nutritional deficiency or toxicity - You are changing feed sources or formulations - You need assistance developing feeding programs for different system types ### Facility and Environmental Consultation Consult an agricultural engineer or extension specialist when: - Ventilation problems persist despite adjustments - Ammonia levels remain above acceptable limits - Flooring conditions cause lameness or injury - You are planning new facilities or major renovations ### Regulatory Compliance Producers must be aware of and comply with all applicable regulations regarding housing, feeding, health management, and environmental protection. Regulations vary by jurisdiction and may change over time. Producers should consult with regulatory authorities, extension services, and industry organizations to ensure compliance. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the difference between white, pink, and red veal? White veal comes from calves fed only milk replacer with limited iron intake, producing pale meat. Pink veal comes from calves fed milk replacer plus starter grain and roughage, resulting in slightly darker meat. Red veal comes from calves raised on pasture or dry lot with forage and grain, producing darker meat similar to beef. The production system, diet, and age at harvest determine meat color and characteristics. ### How much space does a veal calf need in individual housing? Space requirements vary by regulation and certification program. Individual housing should allow the calf to stand, lie down, groom itself, and turn around without restriction. Minimum dimensions typically range from 0.6 to 0.8 meters wide and 1.2 to 1.6 meters long for calves up to 100 kilograms. Producers should check applicable regulations and certification standards for specific requirements. ### Can veal calves be raised in group housing from birth? Group housing from birth is possible but requires careful management. Calves need adequate colostrum intake before mixing to ensure passive immunity. Group size should be small, typically 4 to 10 calves, to reduce competition and disease spread. Feeder space and water access must be sufficient for all calves. Observations of feeding behavior and health are critical in group housing systems. ### What is the ideal temperature for veal [calf housing](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/calf-housing-hutches-pens-group-systems)? Calves are most comfortable in temperatures between 10 and 20 degrees Celsius, depending on age, bedding, and acclimation. Newborn calves require warmer temperatures, around 15 to 20 degrees Celsius, while older calves can tolerate cooler conditions. Heat stress occurs above 25 degrees Celsius, especially with high humidity. Cold stress occurs below 5 degrees Celsius, particularly for wet or poorly bedded calves. ### How often should veal calves be fed milk replacer? Feeding frequency depends on calf age, milk replacer formulation, and management system. Newborn calves typically receive two to three feedings per day. Some systems use ad libitum feeding with acidified milk replacer to allow calves to eat when they choose. Feeding schedules should provide consistent nutrition while avoiding overfeeding that can cause diarrhea. ### What records should veal producers keep? Essential records include calf identification, arrival date and weight, feed type and amount consumed, growth rates, health observations and treatments, mortality, and environmental conditions. Records support management decisions, demonstrate compliance with welfare standards, and provide data for continuous improvement. Producers should review records regularly to identify trends and problems. ### How can producers prevent respiratory disease in veal calves? Prevention strategies include ensuring adequate colostrum intake, providing good ventilation, avoiding overcrowding, reducing stress during transport and mixing, and implementing vaccination programs as recommended by a veterinarian. Early detection and treatment of respiratory disease improve outcomes. Records of respiratory disease cases help identify risk factors and evaluate prevention efforts. ### What are the welfare concerns associated with individual housing? Individual housing restricts movement, social contact, and natural behaviors. Calves may develop abnormal behaviors such as tongue rolling or repetitive movements. Limited space can affect lying comfort and joint health. Producers using individual housing should provide enrichment items, ensure adequate space, and monitor calves for signs of poor welfare. Some certification programs and regulations require group housing for veal calves. ## Related Farming Guides - [Dairy Cattle Farming Nutrition Housing Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cattle-farming-nutrition-housing-health-signals-and-herd-management) - [Beef Cattle Farming Forage Reproduction Calving Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-farming-forage-reproduction-calving-health-signals-and-herd-management) - [Beef Cattle Crossbreeding System Planning](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-crossbreeding-system-planning) - [Dairy Cow Cooling System Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-cooling-system-management) - [Dairy Cow Metritis Monitoring After Calving](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-cow-metritis-monitoring-after-calving) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Cattle Head Gate Selection and Adjustment](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/cattle-head-gate-selection-and-adjustment) * [Beef Cattle Handling Facility Flow](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-handling-facility-flow) * [Beef Cattle Maternity Pen Design: Comfort and Monitoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-maternity-pen-design-comfort-monitoring) ## References and Further Reading - [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [Reproductive Systems for North American Beef Cattle Herds.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27156223). The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice, 2016. - [Survey of smallholder beef cattle production systems in different agro-ecological zones of Cambodia.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26055891). Tropical animal health and production, 2015. - [Crossbreeding applied to systems of beef cattle production to improve performance traits and carcass quality.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31064578). Animal : an international journal of animal bioscience, 2019. - [Methane Emissions and the Use of Desmanthus in Beef Cattle Production in Northern Australia.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31404998). Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2019. - [Climate impacts of alternative beef production systems depend on the functional unit used: Weight or monetary value.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39008689). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 2024. - [Antimicrobial usage and associated residues and resistance emergence in smallholder beef cattle production systems in Nigeria: A One Health challenge.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35641718). Veterinary research communications, 2023. - [Main critical factors affecting the welfare of beef cattle and veal calves raised under intensive rearing systems in Italy: A review](https://doi.org/10.4081/ijas.2009.s1.67). Italian Journal of Animal Science, 2009. - [A scoping review: The impact of housing systems and environmental features on beef cattle welfare](https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10040565). Animals, 2020. - [Production significance of bovine respiratory disease lesions in slaughtered beef cattle](https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10101770). Animals, 2020. - [Phenotypic and Genotypic Assessment of Antimicrobial Resistance in Escherichia coli from Australian Cattle Populations at Slaughter](https://doi.org/10.4315/JFP-21-430). Journal of Food Protection, 2022. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.