# Seedstock Cattle Operation: Breeding, Genetics, and Business Model ## Key Takeaways - Seedstock operations are specialized enterprises focused on producing registered breeding animals, primarily bulls, to drive genetic improvement in commercial beef herds through rigorous selection for economically relevant traits. - Expected Progeny Differences (EPDs) and genomic testing are critical genetic selection tools, enabling prediction of an animal's genetic merit for traits such as calving ease, growth rate, and carcass quality, thereby enhancing selection accuracy and accelerating genetic progress. - A robust herd health program, encompassing biosecurity measures (e.g., quarantine, disease testing for Johne's disease and BVD), vaccination protocols, and parasite control, is paramount for maintaining buyer confidence and market access. - Bull fertility is a non-negotiable critical factor; all bulls sold must pass a comprehensive Breeding Soundness Examination (BSE) to ensure their efficacy as breeding animals and prevent significant economic losses for commercial producers. - Comprehensive and accurate record-keeping, including individual animal identification, pedigree, performance data (birth weight, weaning weight, yearling weight, ultrasound carcass data), and health treatments, is foundational for genetic evaluation, EPD calculation, and building buyer trust. - Diversified revenue streams, including bull sales, semen sales, embryo sales, and replacement female sales, can mitigate risk but necessitate additional management and marketing expertise to optimize profitability. --- A seedstock cattle operation produces registered breeding animals, primarily bulls, for sale to commercial cow-calf producers. The primary goal is genetic improvement of the beef herd through selection for economically relevant traits. This article explains the operational goals, genetic selection tools including expected progeny differences (EPDs) and genomic testing, revenue streams from bull sales, semen, and embryos, and the management decisions required to run a viable seedstock enterprise. The content is intended for producers considering entering seedstock production or purchasing breeding stock. ## At a Glance: Seedstock Operation Overview | Component | Description | Key Consideration | |-----------|-------------|-------------------| | Primary product | Registered bulls for natural service | Bull fertility and structural soundness are critical for commercial herd conception rates | | Genetic selection tools | EPDs, genomic testing, ultrasound carcass data | Tools allow prediction of genetic merit for traits like calving ease, weaning weight, and marbling | | Revenue streams | Bull sales, semen sales, embryo sales, replacement females | Diversification reduces risk but requires additional management and marketing | | Herd health program | Vaccination, biosecurity, disease testing (e.g., Johne's disease) | Health status affects buyer confidence and market access | | Record keeping | Individual animal identification, pedigree, performance data, EPDs | Complete records are essential for genetic evaluation and sale catalog preparation | | Marketing | Private treaty, production sales, online auctions | Buyer trust depends on transparency of data and health protocols | ## Defining Seedstock Production Seedstock producers maintain purebred or composite herds of registered cattle. The term "seedstock" refers to animals that serve as the genetic foundation for the commercial beef industry. A seedstock operation sells breeding animals, not slaughter animals. The buyer, typically a commercial cow-calf producer, uses these genetics to improve calf crop performance. The seedstock sector is a specialized segment of the beef industry that requires intensive management, detailed record keeping, and a long-term breeding plan. The Veterinary Clinics of North America: Food Animal Practice published a review titled "Seedstock beef cattle: SPA" that discusses the Standardized Performance Analysis (SPA) system for evaluating seedstock herd efficiency (PubMed, 1995). This system provides benchmarks for reproductive performance, weaning weights, and cow costs that seedstock producers can use to compare their operation against industry averages. ## Breeding Objectives and Genetic Selection ### Defining the Breeding Goal A seedstock operation must have a clear breeding objective. This objective should align with the needs of commercial producers who will purchase the bulls. Common breeding goals include improving calving ease, increasing weaning weight, enhancing feed efficiency, and optimizing carcass quality. The breeding objective determines which traits receive selection pressure and which sires are used. The Journal of Animal Science published a study titled "Factors affecting beef cattle producer perspectives on feed efficiency" that examined how producers view feed efficiency traits (PubMed, 2010). Feed efficiency is increasingly important because it directly affects profitability for both seedstock and commercial operations. Seedstock producers should consider feed efficiency in their selection criteria because commercial buyers will demand bulls that produce efficient offspring. ### Expected Progeny Differences (EPDs) EPDs are the primary genetic selection tool for beef cattle. An EPD predicts the genetic merit of an animal as a parent for a specific trait. EPDs allow comparison of animals within a breed across different herds and years. Common EPDs include birth weight, weaning weight, yearling weight, milk, maternal calving ease, and carcass traits. Seedstock producers use EPDs to select replacement heifers and breeding bulls. When purchasing a bull, a commercial producer should examine EPDs for traits that match their herd goals. For example, a producer with first-calf heifers should select a bull with a low birth weight EPD to reduce calving difficulty. ### Genomic Testing Genomic testing uses DNA markers to predict genetic merit. The Journal of Animal Science published a study titled "The value of using DNA markers for beef bull selection in the seedstock sector" that examined the economic value of genomic information for bull selection (PubMed, 2011). Genomic testing can improve the accuracy of EPDs, especially for young animals that do not yet have progeny data. This allows seedstock producers to make selection decisions earlier and with more confidence. Genomic testing is particularly valuable for traits that are expensive or difficult to measure, such as feed efficiency and carcass quality. A seedstock producer can use genomic results to identify which young bulls to keep for breeding and which to cull. The cost of testing must be weighed against the potential benefit of more accurate selection. ### Ultrasound Carcass Data Ultrasound scanning provides live-animal measurements of ribeye area, backfat thickness, and intramuscular fat (marbling). These measurements can be used to calculate carcass EPDs. Seedstock producers who sell bulls to commercial producers targeting grid-based marketing systems should collect ultrasound data to document carcass merit. ## Herd Management and Health Protocols ### Biosecurity and Disease Prevention A seedstock operation must maintain a high health status to protect the genetic investment and to satisfy buyer expectations. Biosecurity measures include quarantine of new animals, controlled access to facilities, and testing for diseases such as Johne's disease, bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), and trichomoniasis. The Preventive [Veterinary Medicine](/blog/careers/veterinary-medicine-careers-from-clinical-practice-to-public-health) journal published a study titled "Perceptions of veterinarians in bovine practice and producers with beef cow-calf operations enrolled in the US Voluntary Bovine Johne's Disease Control Program concerning economic losses associated with Johne's disease" (PubMed, 2013). Johne's disease causes economic losses through reduced milk production, weight loss, and premature culling. Seedstock producers should participate in voluntary Johne's disease control programs and test herd additions to prevent introduction of the disease. ### Vaccination and Parasite Control A comprehensive herd health program includes vaccination against common respiratory and reproductive diseases. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on vaccination protocols for beef cattle (Merck Veterinary Manual, Management and Nutrition). Seedstock producers should work with a veterinarian to develop a vaccination schedule appropriate for their region and herd size. Parasite control is essential for maintaining herd health and performance. Internal and external parasites reduce feed efficiency, weight gain, and reproductive performance. A strategic deworming program based on fecal egg counts and seasonal parasite challenges is more effective than a calendar-based approach. ### Bull Fertility Evaluation Bulls are the primary product of a seedstock operation. Every bull sold should pass a breeding soundness examination (BSE) before sale. The BSE includes a physical examination, scrotal measurement, and semen evaluation. A bull that fails the BSE should not be sold as a breeding animal. The Translational Animal Science journal published a study titled "Breeding Bulls in Alberta: a cross-sectional descriptive survey of breeding bull herds and current management strategies" that describes management practices in bull breeding herds (PubMed, 2025). This survey provides insight into how seedstock producers manage bull development, nutrition, and health to ensure bulls are ready for sale. ## Record Keeping and Performance Data ### Individual Animal Identification Every animal in a seedstock herd must have permanent identification. The most common system is a breed registration tattoo combined with an ear tag. Electronic identification (EID) tags are increasingly used for data collection and management. Individual identification allows the producer to track pedigree, performance, health treatments, and sale information for each animal. ### Performance Records Performance records include birth weight, weaning weight, yearling weight, and ultrasound carcass data. These records are submitted to breed associations for EPD calculation. Accurate weights and dates are essential for meaningful genetic evaluation. Scales should be calibrated regularly, and weights should be taken at consistent ages. ### Reproductive Records Reproductive records include breeding dates, calving dates, calving ease scores, and weaning dates. These records allow calculation of reproductive efficiency measures such as calving interval and pregnancy rate. Seedstock producers should also record which bulls were used in which breeding groups to maintain accurate pedigree information. ### Health and Treatment Records Health records include vaccination dates, deworming dates, and any treatments for illness or injury. These records are important for buyer confidence and for compliance with [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) regulations. The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service provides resources for developing a herd management plan that includes record keeping (NRCS, www.nrcs.usda.gov). ## Revenue Streams and Business Model ### Bull Sales Bull sales are the primary revenue source for most seedstock operations. Bulls are typically sold as yearlings or two-year-olds. The sale price depends on genetics, performance data, structural soundness, and fertility. Seedstock producers can sell bulls through private treaty, production sales, or online auctions. A production sale is a scheduled auction where multiple bulls are offered for sale. This format allows buyers to compare animals and bid competitively. Private treaty sales involve direct negotiation between buyer and seller. Online auctions have become more common and allow buyers to participate from remote locations. ### Semen Sales Seedstock producers with elite sires can sell semen for artificial insemination (AI). Semen sales provide revenue without the cost of raising and feeding a bull. Semen can be sold domestically or internationally. The producer must collect and freeze semen according to industry standards and maintain health testing requirements for export. ### Embryo Sales Embryo transfer allows a seedstock producer to multiply the genetics of elite females. Embryos can be sold to other producers who want to introduce new genetics into their herd. Embryo sales require a recipient herd and specialized management. The cost of embryo collection and transfer must be weighed against the potential return. ### Replacement Female Sales Seedstock producers can sell registered heifers as replacement females. These heifers are typically sold to other seedstock producers or to commercial producers who want to improve their cow herd genetics. Heifer sales require the same level of record keeping and health management as bull sales. ## Marketing and Buyer Relations ### Building Buyer Trust Buyer trust is essential for a successful seedstock operation. Trust is built through transparency of data, honesty about animal health, and follow-up support after the sale. Seedstock producers should provide complete EPDs, performance data, and health records for every animal sold. ### Sale Catalog Preparation A sale catalog is a marketing document that lists the animals offered for sale. The catalog should include registration numbers, pedigree, EPDs, performance data, and health information. Photographs of each animal can help buyers evaluate structural soundness and conformation. ### Customer Support Seedstock producers should provide support to buyers after the sale. This support can include advice on bull management, nutrition, and breeding. A producer who helps buyers succeed will build a loyal customer base and generate repeat sales. ## Common Failure Patterns in Seedstock Operations ### Poor Bull Fertility A seedstock operation that sells bulls with poor fertility will lose buyer confidence and market share. Bulls should pass a BSE before sale, and the producer should retain records of the examination. If a bull fails the BSE, the producer should investigate the cause and correct it if possible. ### Incomplete Records Incomplete or inaccurate records reduce the value of genetic evaluations. Seedstock producers must maintain complete records of pedigree, performance, and health. If records are missing, the producer cannot calculate accurate EPDs or provide buyers with the information they need. ### Disease Outbreaks A disease outbreak can devastate a seedstock operation. Biosecurity measures should be in place to prevent introduction of diseases. If a disease is detected, the producer should work with a veterinarian to contain the outbreak and prevent spread to other herds. ### Overemphasis on Single Trait Selection for a single trait can lead to unintended consequences. For example, selecting only for weaning weight can increase birth weight and calving difficulty. Seedstock producers should use a balanced selection index that considers multiple traits. ## Welfare and Safety Considerations ### Animal Welfare Seedstock operations must provide adequate nutrition, housing, and veterinary care for all animals. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on beef cattle management and welfare (Merck Veterinary Manual, Management and Nutrition). Producers should monitor body condition scores, provide clean water, and protect animals from extreme weather. ### Worker Safety Working with bulls and large cattle requires safety precautions. Facilities should be designed to allow safe handling of animals. Workers should be trained in cattle behavior and handling techniques. Bulls can be dangerous, and extra caution is needed when handling them. ### Food Safety Seedstock operations that sell cull animals for slaughter must comply with food safety regulations. Withdrawal periods for medications must be observed. The producer should maintain treatment records to ensure that no animal is sent to slaughter with violative residues. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Seedstock producers should seek professional assistance in the following situations: - A disease outbreak that cannot be controlled with routine management - A bull that fails the BSE and the cause is not obvious - A genetic defect that appears in multiple offspring - A buyer complaint about bull fertility or health - A regulatory issue related to animal health or food safety A veterinarian should be consulted for disease diagnosis and treatment. A geneticist or breed association representative can help with genetic evaluation and selection decisions. An accountant or agricultural lender can help with financial planning and tax issues. ## Practical Decision Framework for Bull Retention and Culling in Seedstock Operations A seedstock operation's profitability depends heavily on which bulls are retained for breeding and which are culled. Without a structured decision framework, producers risk keeping underperforming bulls that reduce genetic progress or culling young bulls prematurely before their genetic merit is confirmed. This section provides a practical decision framework for bull retention and culling based on performance data, genomic information, and physical evaluation. ### The Three-Stage Bull Evaluation System A systematic approach to bull evaluation involves three distinct stages: weaning evaluation, yearling evaluation, and post-breeding season evaluation. Each stage uses different criteria and data sources to inform retention or culling decisions. #### Stage 1: Weaning Evaluation (5-8 months of age) At weaning, the first major culling decision occurs. The primary criteria at this stage include: - **Structural soundness**: Examine feet, legs, and overall conformation. Bulls with severe structural defects such as post-leggedness, cow-hocked conformation, or straight shoulders should be culled regardless of genetic merit. Structural problems often worsen with age and weight gain. - **Birth weight and calving ease**: Review the bull's own birth weight and his dam's calving history. Bulls born with high birth weights or from dams with calving difficulty should be flagged for closer evaluation. The Merck Veterinary Manual notes that birth weight is a key factor in calving ease and should be considered in selection decisions (Merck Veterinary Manual, Management and Nutrition). - **Weaning weight ratio**: Calculate the bull's weaning weight relative to his contemporary group. Bulls with weaning weight ratios below 90 should be considered for culling unless they have exceptional EPDs for other traits. - **Preliminary EPDs**: Review the bull's weaning EPDs, which are based on pedigree information. If genomic testing has been completed, use the genomic-enhanced EPDs for more accurate selection. The Journal of Animal Science study on DNA markers for bull selection confirms that genomic information improves the accuracy of EPDs for young animals (PubMed, 2011). At weaning, cull the bottom 10-20% of bulls based on a combination of structural soundness, weaning weight ratio, and preliminary EPDs. Bulls that pass this stage move to the yearling evaluation. #### Stage 2: Yearling Evaluation (12-15 months of age) The yearling evaluation is the most critical decision point because it occurs close to the sale date. Criteria at this stage include: - **Yearling weight and growth rate**: Bulls should have a yearling weight ratio of at least 100 relative to their contemporary group. Growth rate between weaning and yearling is also important, bulls that fail to gain adequately should be culled. - **Scrotal circumference**: Measure scrotal circumference at 12-14 months of age. Minimum acceptable scrotal circumference varies by breed but generally ranges from 32-36 cm at 12 months. Smaller scrotal circumference is associated with reduced fertility and later puberty in female offspring. - **Ultrasound carcass data**: Collect ultrasound measurements for ribeye area, backfat thickness, and intramuscular fat. These measurements are used to calculate carcass EPDs. Bulls with poor carcass merit should be culled if carcass traits are important to the breeding objective. - **Final EPDs**: At yearling age, EPDs are updated with the bull's own performance data. Compare each bull's EPDs to the breed average and to the operation's breeding objective. Bulls that fall below acceptable thresholds for key traits should be culled. - **Structural re-evaluation**: Re-examine feet and legs for any changes since weaning. Bulls that have developed structural problems should be culled regardless of other merits. At yearling evaluation, cull the bottom 20-30% of bulls. Only the top 50-70% of weaned bulls should be retained for potential sale or breeding. #### Stage 3: Post-Breeding Season Evaluation (after first breeding season) For bulls retained for natural service in the seedstock herd, evaluate their performance after the first breeding season. Criteria include: - **Pregnancy rates**: Review the pregnancy rates of females exposed to each bull. A bull that fails to achieve acceptable pregnancy rates (typically 90% or higher in a 60-90 day breeding season) should be culled. - **Breeding soundness examination**: Conduct a BSE after the breeding season. The BSE includes physical examination, scrotal measurement, and semen evaluation. Bulls that fail the BSE should not be used for future breeding. - **Calving ease of offspring**: Review calving ease scores for calves sired by the bull. Bulls that consistently produce calves requiring assistance should be culled, especially if calving ease is a priority trait. - **Offspring performance**: Evaluate weaning weights and overall performance of the bull's first calf crop. Bulls that produce below-average offspring should be considered for culling. The Translational Animal Science survey of bull breeding herds in Alberta provides insight into management practices that affect bull fertility and longevity (PubMed, 2025). Producers should use this information to benchmark their own bull management protocols. ### Record System for Bull Evaluation A structured record system is essential for implementing the three-stage evaluation framework. The following records should be maintained for each bull: - **Individual identification**: Registration number, tattoo, and EID tag number - **Birth data**: Birth date, birth weight, calving ease score, and dam identification - **Weaning data**: Weaning date, weaning weight, weaning weight ratio, and contemporary group - **Yearling data**: Yearling date, yearling weight, yearling weight ratio, scrotal circumference, and ultrasound measurements - **EPD records**: Current EPDs for all relevant traits, updated at each evaluation stage - **Genomic data**: Genomic test results and genomic-enhanced EPDs if available - **Health records**: Vaccination dates, deworming dates, and any treatments - **BSE results**: Date and results of each breeding soundness examination - **Breeding records**: Females exposed, pregnancy rates, and calving ease of offspring The USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service provides resources for developing herd management plans that include record keeping systems (NRCS, www.nrcs.usda.gov). Seedstock producers should adapt these resources to their specific operation. ### Common Failure Patterns in Bull Retention Decisions Several common failure patterns can undermine the effectiveness of a bull retention program: - **Retaining bulls based on pedigree alone**: A bull from a famous sire may have poor individual performance. Pedigree should be one factor among many, not the sole criterion. - **Ignoring structural problems**: Structural defects often worsen with age and weight gain. A bull with minor structural issues at weaning may become unsound by yearling age. - **Failing to use contemporary group comparisons**: Comparing bulls across different management groups can be misleading. Always compare bulls within the same contemporary group for accurate performance evaluation. - **Delaying culling decisions**: Keeping a marginal bull for one more breeding season can result in lost genetic progress and reduced buyer confidence. Make culling decisions promptly based on objective data. - **Overvaluing a single trait**: A bull with exceptional weaning weight EPDs but poor carcass merit may not meet the needs of commercial buyers. Use a balanced selection index that considers multiple traits. ### Professional Escalation Criteria Seedstock producers should seek professional assistance in the following situations related to bull evaluation: - A bull that fails the BSE and the cause is not obvious (consult a veterinarian) - A genetic defect that appears in multiple offspring from the same sire (consult a geneticist or breed association) - Difficulty interpreting genomic test results or genomic-enhanced EPDs (consult a breed association or genetic testing company) - A buyer complaint about bull fertility or structural soundness (consult a veterinarian and review records) The Preventive Veterinary Medicine study on Johne's disease perceptions highlights the importance of veterinary involvement in herd health management (PubMed, 2013). Similarly, veterinarians can provide valuable guidance on bull fertility evaluation and management. ### Welfare and Safety Considerations Bull evaluation and handling require attention to both animal welfare and worker safety. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on beef cattle management and welfare (Merck Veterinary Manual, Management and Nutrition). Key considerations include: - **Handling facilities**: Use well-designed handling facilities that allow safe movement and restraint of bulls. Poor facilities increase stress for both animals and handlers. - **Body condition monitoring**: Bulls should maintain appropriate body condition throughout the evaluation period. Overconditioned bulls may have reduced fertility, while underconditioned bulls may lack the energy reserves for breeding. - **Health monitoring**: Bulls should be monitored for signs of illness or injury throughout the evaluation period. Prompt treatment of health issues can prevent long-term problems. - **Worker safety**: Bulls can be dangerous animals. Workers should be trained in cattle behavior and safe handling techniques. Never turn your back on a bull, and always have an escape route when working in close quarters. By implementing a structured bull retention and culling framework, seedstock producers can make objective, data-driven decisions that improve genetic progress, reduce costs, and maintain buyer confidence. The three-stage evaluation system provides a clear pathway from weaning through post-breeding evaluation, with specific criteria and record-keeping requirements at each stage. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the difference between a seedstock operation and a commercial cow-calf operation? A seedstock operation produces registered breeding animals for sale to other producers. A commercial cow-calf operation produces feeder calves for sale to feedlots. Seedstock operations focus on genetic improvement, while commercial operations focus on efficient production of marketable calves. ### How do I choose which breed to use in my seedstock operation? Breed selection depends on your target market, climate, and management system. Consider which breeds are popular with commercial producers in your region. Research breed association data on EPDs and breed characteristics. Talk to other seedstock producers and commercial buyers about their preferences. ### What records do I need to keep for a seedstock operation? You need individual animal identification, pedigree records, birth weights, weaning weights, yearling weights, ultrasound carcass data, breeding records, calving records, and health treatment records. These records are submitted to breed associations for EPD calculation and are used in sale catalogs. ### How do I price bulls for sale? Bull pricing should reflect the animal's genetic merit, performance data, structural soundness, and fertility. Compare your bulls to similar animals sold in your region. Consider the cost of raising the bull and the potential return to the buyer. A bull with superior EPDs and proven fertility can command a higher price. ### What is the value of genomic testing for my seedstock herd? Genomic testing improves the accuracy of EPDs, especially for young animals. This allows you to make selection decisions earlier and with more confidence. The value of testing depends on the traits you are selecting for and the cost of testing. The Journal of Animal Science study on DNA markers for bull selection provides evidence of the economic value of genomic information (PubMed, 2011). ### How do I market my bulls to commercial producers? Build relationships with commercial producers through field days, bull sales, and personal visits. Provide complete data on every bull, including EPDs, performance records, and health information. Offer support after the sale to help buyers manage their new bulls. A reputation for honesty and quality will generate repeat business. ### What health testing should I do on my seedstock herd? Work with a veterinarian to develop a health testing program based on your herd's risk factors. Common tests include Johne's disease, BVD, trichomoniasis, and brucellosis. Participate in voluntary disease control programs to demonstrate your herd's health status to buyers. ### How do I handle a bull that fails the breeding soundness examination? Investigate the cause of the failure. Common causes include injury, infection, or testicular degeneration. Work with a veterinarian to determine if the condition is treatable. If the bull cannot be treated, cull him from the breeding program. Do not sell a bull that has failed the BSE without disclosing the condition to the buyer. ## Related Farming Guides - [Beef Cattle Backgrounding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-backgrounding-management) - [Beef Cattle Forage Budgeting](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-forage-budgeting) - [Beef Cattle Manure Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-manure-management) - [Beef Cattle Marketing Records](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-marketing-records) - [Beef Cattle Mud Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-mud-management) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Cattle Head Gate Selection and Adjustment](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/cattle-head-gate-selection-and-adjustment) * [Beef Cattle Handling Facility Flow](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-handling-facility-flow) * [Beef Cattle Maternity Pen Design: Comfort and Monitoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-maternity-pen-design-comfort-monitoring) ## References and Further Reading - [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [Seedstock beef cattle: SPA.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7584819). The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice, 1995. - [The value of using DNA markers for beef bull selection in the seedstock sector.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21262975). Journal of animal science, 2011. - [Factors affecting beef cattle producer perspectives on feed efficiency.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20622178). Journal of animal science, 2010. - [Breeding Bulls in Alberta: a cross-sectional descriptive survey of breeding bull herds and current management strategies.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40589873). Translational animal science, 2025. - [Review: An overview of beef production from pasture and feedlot globally, as demand for beef and the need for sustainable practices increase.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34274250). Animal : an international journal of animal bioscience, 2021. - [Perceptions of veterinarians in bovine practice and producers with beef cow-calf operations enrolled in the US Voluntary Bovine Johne's Disease Control Program concerning economic losses associated with Johne's disease.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24034813). Preventive veterinary medicine, 2013. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.