# Cattle Confinement Barns: Design, Ventilation, and Bedding Systems


## Key Takeaways

- **Ventilation is paramount for respiratory health and gas management:** Inadequate ventilation in confinement barns leads to elevated ammonia, carbon dioxide, and potentially hydrogen sulfide levels, increasing the risk of bovine respiratory disease complex and posing acute safety hazards, particularly in deep-pit systems where continuous gas monitoring and alarms are critical.
- **Structural design and orientation optimize natural ventilation:** Hoop and rigid-frame barns require strategic orientation (long axis perpendicular to prevailing summer winds) and appropriate openings (ridge and sidewall) to maximize air exchange, with mechanical ventilation becoming essential for wider structures or regions with inconsistent wind.
- **Bedding management directly impacts animal comfort and air quality:** The selection of bedding material (straw, stover, shavings, sawdust, sand) influences moisture absorption, cushion, and odor production; maintaining a dry, adequately deep pack is crucial to prevent ammonia release, bacterial growth, and reduce lameness risk.
- **Manure management systems necessitate specific safety protocols:** Deep-pit systems require diligent monitoring for hazardous gas accumulation (ammonia, CO2, H2S) and strict adherence to agitation and pump-out safety procedures, while bedded pack systems demand timely removal to prevent environmental contamination and odor issues.
- **Integrated management of environmental factors is essential:** Producers must systematically assess local climate, building type, animal density, and available resources to select appropriate ventilation and bedding strategies, supported by meticulous record-keeping of environmental parameters (ammonia, CO2, moisture) and animal health events.
- **Proactive monitoring and professional consultation prevent critical failures:** Regular measurement of ammonia and CO2 concentrations, bedding pack conditions, and animal health indicators, coupled with established escalation criteria for consulting veterinarians or engineers, are vital for early detection and correction of system mismatches and potential hazards.

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Beef cattle producers considering or operating confinement barns must integrate structural design, ventilation capacity, bedding management, and manure handling into a single functional system. This article covers the core decisions for confined beef cattle operations, including building layout, air exchange requirements, bedding material selection, and manure storage options. The content is intended for producers who are evaluating new construction or troubleshooting existing facilities.

## At a Glance: Confinement Barn System Components

The table below summarizes the primary system components and their practical considerations for beef cattle confinement barns.

| System Component | Primary Function | Key Management Consideration |
|---|---|---|
| Building structure (hoop, post-frame, or rigid frame) | Provides shelter from precipitation, wind, and solar radiation | Orientation for prevailing winds, ridge or sidewall openings for natural ventilation |
| Ventilation system (natural or mechanical) | Removes moisture, heat, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and other gases | Air exchange rate must match animal density and outdoor temperature, deep-pit barns require specific gas monitoring |
| Bedding material (straw, corn stover, wood shavings, sawdust, or sand) | Absorbs moisture, provides cushion, and dilutes manure | Material cost, availability, handling equipment, and effect on manure pack odor |
| Manure management (deep pit, bedded pack, or scrape) | Stores or removes manure and urine until land application | Storage capacity, pumping access, and gas release during agitation |

## Structural Design Considerations for Confinement Barns

Building design directly affects animal comfort, labor efficiency, and long-term durability. The two most common structural types for beef cattle confinement are hoop barns (also called hoop structures or fabric-covered buildings) and rigid-frame barns with metal or wood siding and roofing.

### Hoop Barns

Hoop barns use a fabric cover stretched over arched steel or aluminum frames. The fabric allows diffused light entry and reduces initial construction cost compared to rigid-frame buildings. A study on finishing beef cattle managed in a bedded hoop-barn system reported performance and carcass characteristics for cattle housed in this type of structure (Performance and carcass characteristics of finishing beef cattle managed in a bedded hoop-barn system, Journal of Animal Science, 2010, PubMed). Producers should note that hoop barns require careful attention to fabric tension, snow load capacity, and wind resistance. The end walls are typically left open or fitted with curtains to allow natural ventilation.

### Rigid-Frame Barns

Rigid-frame barns use steel or wood posts with metal roofing and siding. These structures offer greater durability and can support insulation, mechanical ventilation systems, and heavier snow loads. The sidewalls can be open, curtained, or solid depending on ventilation strategy. Rigid-frame barns generally have higher initial cost but longer service life than hoop barns.

### Orientation and Site Selection

Building orientation should align with prevailing summer winds to maximize natural ventilation. The long axis of the barn should be perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction. Site selection must consider drainage, access for feed trucks and manure handling equipment, and distance from residences or sensitive areas. The Natural Resources Conservation Service provides technical guidance on agricultural building site planning (NRCS, USDA).

## Ventilation Requirements for Confinement Barns

Ventilation is the most critical environmental control in a confinement barn. Inadequate ventilation leads to high humidity, condensation, ammonia accumulation, and increased respiratory disease risk. The Merck Veterinary Manual addresses management and nutrition considerations for housed cattle, including environmental conditions that affect health (Merck Veterinary Manual).

### Natural Ventilation

Natural ventilation relies on wind pressure and thermal buoyancy to move air through the building. Open sidewalls, ridge vents, and end wall openings are the primary inlets and outlets. The ridge opening should be continuous and sized according to building width. Sidewall curtains or doors allow adjustment of opening size based on weather. Natural ventilation works best in buildings less than 60 feet wide and in regions with consistent wind.

### Mechanical Ventilation

Mechanical ventilation uses fans to control air exchange regardless of outdoor wind conditions. This system is necessary for fully enclosed, insulated barns or barns with deep-pit manure storage where gas concentrations must be managed. Fans are typically mounted in sidewalls or end walls, with inlets on the opposite wall. Mechanical ventilation requires a backup power source and regular fan maintenance.

### Gas Monitoring in Deep-Pit Barns

Deep-pit barns store manure beneath a slatted floor. Gases including ammonia and carbon dioxide accumulate in the pit and can reach hazardous concentrations. A study titled Deep pit beef [cattle barn](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/cattle-barn-layout-zones-for-feeding-and-rest) ammonia and carbon dioxide concentrations examined gas levels in these facilities (ASABE 2020 Annual International Meeting). Another descriptive study reported environmental conditions and gas concentrations in deep-pit finishing cattle facilities (Environmental conditions and gas concentrations in deep-pit finishing cattle facilities: A descriptive study, Transactions of the ASABE, 2021). Producers operating deep-pit barns should install gas monitors for ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide. Alarms should be set at levels that trigger immediate evacuation and ventilation increase. Manure agitation during pump-out releases large volumes of gas and requires extreme caution.

### Ventilation Failure Patterns

Common ventilation failures include undersized ridge openings, blocked inlets from snow or debris, fan belt slippage, and thermostat malfunction. In winter, producers may reduce ventilation to conserve heat, leading to moisture buildup and respiratory problems. The minimum ventilation rate must be maintained even in cold weather to remove moisture and gases.

## Bedding Systems for Confinement Barns

Bedding provides cushion, absorbs moisture, and dilutes manure. The choice of bedding material affects animal comfort, manure handling, and odor production.

### Bedding Material Options

Common bedding materials for beef cattle include wheat straw, corn stover, wood shavings, sawdust, and sand. Each material has different absorbency, cost, and handling characteristics. A study titled Use of bedding materials in beef bedded manure packs at hot and cold ambient temperatures examined the effects of different bedding materials on odorous volatile organic compounds and odor activity values (Transactions of the ASABE, 2021). Producers should consider that bedding material influences the odor profile of the manure pack, especially during warm weather.

### Bedded Pack Management

In bedded pack systems, bedding is added periodically to absorb moisture and maintain a dry surface. The pack builds up over time and is removed once or twice per year. The depth of the pack affects animal comfort and air quality. A study on climate conditions in bedded confinement buildings reported environmental conditions inside these structures (Climate conditions in bedded confinement buildings, Livestock Environment VIII Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium, 2008). Producers should monitor pack temperature and moisture. A wet pack produces more ammonia and odors. A dry pack with adequate bedding reduces respiratory irritation for cattle and workers.

### Bedding Application Rates

The amount of bedding needed depends on animal density, outdoor temperature, and manure production. In cold weather, more bedding is required to provide insulation and absorb additional moisture from condensation. Producers should keep records of bedding type, amount applied, and pack condition. Over-bedding increases cost and manure volume. Under-bedding leads to wet, muddy conditions that increase disease risk.

### Bedding Failure Patterns

Common bedding failures include using material with high moisture content, applying too little bedding during wet weather, and failing to remove wet spots. Wet bedding packs promote bacterial growth and increase ammonia release. Producers should remove wet bedding from around waterers and high-traffic areas daily.

## Manure Management in Confinement Barns

Manure management affects air quality, nutrient recycling, and regulatory compliance. The two primary systems for confined beef cattle are deep-pit storage and bedded pack removal.

### Deep-Pit Manure Storage

Deep-pit barns store manure in a pit beneath a slatted floor. The pit is typically 8 to 10 feet deep and is emptied once or twice per year. A study titled Manure production rates by finishing cattle in deep-pit cattle barns for the Northern Great Plains reported manure accumulation rates for these systems (ASABE 2017 Annual International Meeting). Producers should know their pit capacity and expected fill rate to plan pump-out timing. Manure production varies with animal size, diet, and bedding use.

### Bedded Pack Removal

Bedded pack systems require removal of the entire pack once or twice per year. The pack can be removed with a skid steer or front-end loader and stockpiled for field application. Timing of removal should consider weather conditions to avoid runoff and odor complaints.

### Manure Handling Safety

Manure storage areas pose serious safety risks. Gases released during agitation include hydrogen sulfide, which can be fatal at low concentrations. Producers should follow established safety protocols: ventilate the barn before and during agitation, keep people and animals out of the barn during pump-out, and use gas monitors. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on management practices that affect animal and worker safety (Merck Veterinary Manual).

## Animal Welfare and Health Considerations

Confinement barns must provide conditions that support cattle health and welfare. Key welfare indicators include respiratory health, lameness, and cleanliness.

### Respiratory Health

Poor ventilation leads to high ammonia concentrations that damage the respiratory tract. Cattle in confined barns are at higher risk for bovine respiratory disease complex. Producers should monitor ammonia levels and adjust ventilation or bedding management when levels exceed recommended thresholds. The Merck Veterinary Manual addresses management factors that influence respiratory disease risk (Merck Veterinary Manual).

### Lameness Prevention

Wet, muddy bedding and concrete floors increase lameness risk. Bedding should be maintained at a depth that provides cushion and absorbs moisture. Slatted floors must be in good repair with no broken or missing slats. Producers should inspect cattle feet and legs regularly and treat lame animals promptly.

### Cleanliness and Hygiene

Cattle in confinement barns have limited space to move away from manure. Bedding management and stocking density directly affect cleanliness. Dirty cattle have higher risk of mastitis and other infections. Producers should maintain a clean lying area and provide adequate space per animal.

## Records and Measurements for Confinement Barn Management

Producers should keep records that allow evaluation of barn performance and early detection of problems.

### Essential Records

- Bedding type, amount applied, and application date
- Manure removal date and volume removed
- Ventilation settings and any adjustments made
- Gas monitor readings (ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide)
- Animal health events (respiratory cases, lameness, mortality)
- Outdoor temperature and weather conditions

### Measurements to Take

- Ammonia concentration at animal level using a calibrated sensor
- Carbon dioxide concentration as an indicator of ventilation adequacy
- Bedding pack temperature and moisture content
- Animal body condition score and cleanliness score
- Water consumption per pen

### Professional Escalation Criteria

Producers should consult a veterinarian, agricultural engineer, or extension specialist when:
- Ammonia concentrations exceed recommended levels despite ventilation adjustments
- Respiratory disease incidence increases above baseline
- Structural damage occurs (sagging roof, broken slats, fabric tears)
- Manure pit gas alarms activate
- Bedding pack becomes consistently wet despite increased bedding application

## Common Failure Patterns in Confinement Barns

Recognizing common failure patterns helps producers correct problems before they affect animal health or productivity.

### Inadequate Winter Ventilation

Producers often reduce ventilation in winter to conserve heat. This leads to high humidity, condensation on ceilings and walls, and increased ammonia. The result is higher respiratory disease incidence and poor animal performance. The minimum ventilation rate must be maintained year-round.

### Bedding Shortage During Wet Weather

Wet weather increases moisture load in the barn. Producers who do not increase bedding application during wet periods create muddy conditions that increase lameness and mastitis risk. Bedding inventory should be sufficient for at least two weeks of heavy use.

### Manure Pit Overfilling

Deep pits that are not pumped on schedule can overflow or create excessive gas pressure. Producers should calculate pit fill rate based on animal numbers and manure production data. A study on manure production rates by finishing cattle in deep-pit barns provides reference data for the Northern Great Plains (Manure production rates by finishing cattle in deep-pit cattle barns for the Northern Great Plains, ASABE 2017 Annual International Meeting).

### Ignoring Gas Monitor Alarms

Gas monitor alarms are sometimes ignored or silenced during routine operations. This is a critical safety failure. All alarms should be treated as serious and investigated immediately. Producers should test gas monitors weekly and calibrate them according to manufacturer instructions.

## Safety and Regulatory Context

Confinement barns are subject to environmental regulations regarding manure storage and application. Producers must comply with local, state, and federal requirements for nutrient management planning and manure application rates. The Natural Resources Conservation Service provides technical assistance for conservation planning and manure management (NRCS, USDA).

Worker safety in confinement barns requires training on gas hazards, manure agitation protocols, and emergency procedures. All workers should know the location of gas monitors and emergency shutoffs. A written safety plan should be posted in the barn and reviewed annually.

## Practical Decision Framework for Selecting Confinement Barn Ventilation and Bedding Systems

Producers face a complex set of interdependent choices when designing or retrofitting a confinement barn. Ventilation capacity, bedding type, and manure management strategy must be matched to local climate, herd size, and operational goals. A structured decision framework helps producers evaluate trade-offs systematically before committing capital or changing management practices. This section provides a step-by-step assessment method, a record-keeping template for ventilation and bedding performance, and troubleshooting protocols for common system mismatches.

### Step-by-Step Decision Framework

The following five-step framework guides producers through the critical choices for ventilation and bedding systems. Each step includes specific observations and measurements that inform the next decision.

**Step 1: Assess Local Climate and Site Conditions**

Begin by recording the following site-specific data: average summer and winter temperatures, prevailing wind direction and speed, annual precipitation, and snow load expectations. Building orientation should align with prevailing summer winds to maximize natural ventilation. The long axis of the barn should be perpendicular to the prevailing wind direction. Site drainage must be evaluated to prevent water from entering the barn or manure storage area. The Natural Resources Conservation Service provides technical guidance on agricultural building site planning (NRCS, USDA). Producers should also measure the distance to the nearest residence or sensitive area, as this affects odor management requirements.

**Step 2: Determine Ventilation Strategy Based on Building Type and Width**

For buildings less than 60 feet wide in regions with consistent summer winds, natural ventilation is often sufficient. Open sidewalls, ridge vents, and end wall openings provide the primary air exchange. For wider buildings or regions with calm periods, mechanical ventilation is necessary. Fully enclosed, insulated barns and deep-pit barns require mechanical ventilation to control gas concentrations regardless of outdoor conditions. A study titled Environmental conditions and gas concentrations in deep-pit finishing cattle facilities: A descriptive study reported gas levels in these facilities (Transactions of the ASABE, 2021). Producers should calculate the required air exchange rate based on animal number, weight, and expected heat and moisture production. The minimum ventilation rate must be maintained even in cold weather to remove moisture and gases.

**Step 3: Select Bedding Material Based on Availability, Cost, and Odor Profile**

Evaluate locally available bedding materials for absorbency, cost per animal per day, and handling characteristics. Common options include wheat straw, corn stover, wood shavings, sawdust, and sand. A study titled Use of bedding materials in beef bedded manure packs at hot and cold ambient temperatures examined the effects of different bedding materials on odorous volatile organic compounds and odor activity values (Transactions of the ASABE, 2021). Producers should request a sample of each candidate material and test its absorbency by adding a known volume of water and measuring the time to saturation. Record the delivered cost per ton or per bale and calculate the cost per animal per day based on expected application rates. Consider the equipment needed to handle each material: straw and corn stover require a bale processor or tub grinder, while wood shavings and sawdust can be spread with a manure spreader or skid steer.

**Step 4: Match Manure Management System to Ventilation and Bedding Choices**

Deep-pit manure storage requires slatted floors and mechanical ventilation to manage gas accumulation. A study titled Deep pit beef [cattle barn](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/cattle-barn-layout-zones-for-feeding-and-rest) ammonia and carbon dioxide concentrations examined gas levels in these facilities (ASABE 2020 Annual International Meeting). Producers must install gas monitors for ammonia, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen sulfide, with alarms set at levels that trigger immediate evacuation and ventilation increase. Bedded pack systems allow natural ventilation but require more bedding and more frequent pack removal. A study on manure production rates by finishing cattle in deep-pit cattle barns for the Northern Great Plains reported accumulation rates for these systems (Manure production rates by finishing cattle in deep-pit cattle barns for the Northern Great Plains, ASABE 2017 Annual International Meeting). Producers should calculate expected fill rate based on animal numbers and manure production data to plan pump-out timing.

**Step 5: Establish Monitoring and Adjustment Protocols**

After the system is operational, producers must monitor key indicators weekly and adjust management as needed. The following record system supports this step.

### Record System for Ventilation and Bedding Performance

Producers should maintain a weekly log with the following fields. This record allows detection of trends before they become problems.

| Date | Outdoor Temp (F) | Barn Temp (F) | Ammonia (ppm) | CO2 (ppm) | Bedding Type | Bedding Amount (tons) | Pack Depth (in) | Pack Moisture (visual) | Ventilation Setting | Fan Hours | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| | | | | | | | | | | | |

Ammonia concentration should be measured at animal level using a calibrated sensor. Carbon dioxide concentration serves as an indicator of ventilation adequacy, levels above 3000 ppm suggest insufficient air exchange. Pack moisture should be assessed visually: a dry pack crumbles when squeezed, a moist pack holds its shape but does not release water, and a wet pack releases water when squeezed. The Merck Veterinary Manual addresses management and nutrition considerations for housed cattle, including environmental conditions that affect health (Merck Veterinary Manual).

### Troubleshooting Common System Mismatches

When ventilation and bedding systems are mismatched, specific failure patterns emerge. The following table links symptoms to likely causes and corrective actions.

| Symptom | Likely Cause | Corrective Action |
|---|---|---|
| High ammonia (>25 ppm) despite adequate ventilation rate | Bedding pack too wet or too shallow | Increase bedding application rate, remove wet spots around waterers, verify ventilation inlets are not blocked |
| Condensation on ceiling and walls | Ventilation rate too low for animal density or outdoor temperature | Increase minimum ventilation setting, check fan operation and belt tension, verify ridge vent is open |
| Bedding pack temperature above 120 F | Excessive microbial activity from high moisture and nitrogen | Increase bedding application, reduce stocking density temporarily, consider adding a carbon source like straw |
| Cattle lying in alleys or standing for extended periods | Bedding pack too wet, too shallow, or contaminated with manure | Remove top layer of pack and add fresh bedding, evaluate bedding material absorbency, check for leaking waterers |
| Odor complaints from neighbors | Bedding material with high odor potential or pack too wet | Switch to a bedding material with lower odor activity value, increase bedding frequency, schedule pack removal during cool weather |

A study on climate conditions in bedded confinement buildings reported environmental conditions inside these structures (Climate conditions in bedded confinement buildings, Livestock Environment VIII Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium, 2008). Producers should use the record system above to track environmental conditions and correlate them with animal health events.

### Professional Escalation Criteria

Producers should consult a veterinarian, agricultural engineer, or extension specialist when:
- Ammonia concentrations exceed 25 ppm for more than 24 hours despite ventilation and bedding adjustments
- Carbon dioxide concentrations exceed 5000 ppm at animal level
- Bedding pack temperature exceeds 140 F
- Respiratory disease incidence increases above baseline for the facility
- Structural damage occurs (sagging roof, broken slats, fabric tears)
- Manure pit gas alarms activate during routine operations
- Odor complaints from neighbors become frequent or involve regulatory action

The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on management practices that affect animal and worker safety (Merck Veterinary Manual). Producers should document all professional consultations and the corrective actions taken.

## Frequently Asked Questions

### What is the best orientation for a confinement barn?
The long axis of the barn should be perpendicular to prevailing summer winds to maximize natural ventilation. Site drainage and access for equipment should also be considered.

### How much bedding do I need per animal per day?
Bedding amount varies with material type, weather, and animal density. Producers should start with a baseline rate and adjust based on pack condition. Records of bedding use and pack moisture help determine the optimal rate for each facility.

### Can I use corn stover as bedding for beef cattle?
Corn stover is commonly used as bedding in beef confinement barns. It has moderate absorbency and is often available at lower cost than straw. A study on bedding materials and odor production included corn stover as a test material (Use of bedding materials in beef bedded manure packs at hot and cold ambient temperatures: Effects on odorous volatile organic compounds and odor activity values, Transactions of the ASABE, 2021).

### How often should I clean out a deep-pit barn?
Deep pits are typically emptied once or twice per year. The exact schedule depends on pit capacity, animal numbers, and manure production rates. Producers should calculate fill rate and plan pump-out before the pit reaches capacity.

### What ammonia level is safe for cattle in a confinement barn?
Ammonia concentrations should be kept as low as possible. Producers should monitor ammonia levels and adjust ventilation or bedding management when concentrations rise. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on environmental conditions for housed cattle (Merck Veterinary Manual).

### Do I need a backup generator for a mechanically ventilated barn?
Yes. Mechanical ventilation barns require a backup power source to maintain air exchange during power outages. Without backup power, animals can suffocate from oxygen depletion or gas accumulation within hours.

### How do I reduce odor from a bedded pack barn?
Odor from bedded packs is influenced by bedding material, pack moisture, and temperature. A study on bedding materials and odor activity values found that material choice affects the volatile organic compounds released (Use of bedding materials in beef bedded manure packs at hot and cold ambient temperatures: Effects on odorous volatile organic compounds and odor activity values, Transactions of the ASABE, 2021). Keeping the pack dry and removing it during cool weather can reduce odor.

### What is the difference between a hoop barn and a rigid-frame barn for cattle?
Hoop barns have lower initial cost and use a fabric cover. Rigid-frame barns are more durable and can support insulation and mechanical ventilation. The choice depends on climate, budget, and management preferences.

## Related Farming Guides

- [Beef Cattle Manure Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-manure-management)
- [Beef Cattle Backgrounding Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-backgrounding-management)
- [Beef Cattle Mud Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-mud-management)
- [Beef Cattle Quarantine Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-quarantine-management)
- [Beef Cow Drylot Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cow-drylot-management)

## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides

* [Cattle Head Gate Selection and Adjustment](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/cattle-head-gate-selection-and-adjustment)
* [Beef Cattle Handling Facility Flow](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-handling-facility-flow)
* [Beef Cattle Maternity Pen Design: Comfort and Monitoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-maternity-pen-design-comfort-monitoring)


## References and Further Reading

- [www.nrcs.usda.gov](https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/)
- [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition)
- [Performance and carcass characteristics of finishing beef cattle managed in a bedded hoop-barn system.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20418457). Journal of animal science, 2010.
- [Deep pit beef cattle barn ammonia and carbon dioxide concentrations](https://doi.org/10.13031/aim.202000840). Asabe 2020 Annual International Meeting, 2020.
- [Manure production rates by finishing cattle in deep-pit cattle barns for the Northern Great Plains](https://doi.org/10.13031/aim.201701439). 2017 Asabe Annual International Meeting, 2017.
- [Environmental conditions and gas concentrations in deep-pit finishing cattle facilities: A descriptive study](https://doi.org/10.13031/TRANS.14040). Transactions of the Asabe, 2021.
- [Climate conditions in bedded confinement buildings](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/63149119686). Livestock Environment Viii Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium, 2008.
- [Use of bedding materials in beef bedded manure packs at hot and cold ambient temperatures: Effects on odorous volatile organic compounds and odor activity values](https://doi.org/10.13031/TRANS.14299). Transactions of the Asabe, 2021.

> This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.