# Beef Cow Pregnancy Diagnosis Records ## Key Takeaways - Pregnancy diagnosis records are critical for informed culling decisions, allowing prompt removal of open cows to reduce feed costs and health risks associated with non-productive animals. - Gestational stage data from pregnancy diagnoses directly informs nutritional grouping, enabling precise ration adjustments to meet increased energy and protein demands in late gestation and prevent metabolic disorders. - Expected calving dates derived from pregnancy diagnoses facilitate calving management planning, including grouping for nutritional needs, allocation of calving pens, and proactive dystocia management. - Accurate pregnancy records are essential for breeding schedule optimization, identifying conception rates by sire, and flagging likely repeat breeders for further investigation. - Diagnostic methods like transrectal ultrasonography (reliable from day 26-30) and palpation (reliable from day 35) have varying sensitivities and costs, with blood-based PSPB assays offering non-invasive options but requiring careful interpretation due to potential false positives from residual protein. - Integrating pregnancy diagnosis data with breeding records, health treatments, and body condition scores is paramount for comprehensive herd reproductive health management and traceability, as emphasized by organizations like the FAO. --- Beef cattle pregnancy diagnosis is not simply a confirmatory test, it is a data-generating event whose records directly inform culling, nutritional grouping, calving management, and the subsequent breeding schedule. Systematic recording of pregnancy status by stage of gestation allows the producer to differentiate open cows, pregnant cows, and cows at risk of late embryonic or fetal loss, each requiring a distinct management path. The value of these records depends on accuracy of diagnosis, timeliness relative to herd management windows, and the ability to link outcomes to individual animal identifiers. ### At a Glance | Decision Domain | Pregnancy Record Input | Management Action | |----------------|------------------------|-------------------| | Culling | Open (non-pregnant) status at end of breeding season | Identify for removal, reduce feed cost and health risk in non-producing animals | | Nutrition | Pregnant / gestational stage (early, mid, late) | Body condition score,based rations to avoid over- or under-conditioning, late gestation requires increased energy | | Calving | Expected calving date (from diagnosis) | Grouping for nutritional needs, allocation of calving pens, planning dystocia management | | Breeding | Date of conception estimate, repeat breeding interval | Determine rebreed eligibility, identify likely repeat breeders for investigation | ### System Context Pregnancy diagnosis is an integral part of a herd’s reproductive health program, not a stand-alone event. Outcomes must be recorded in a manner that allows cross-reference with breeding records, health treatments, and body condition scores. The FAO notes that recording systems for animal production are essential for traceability and for applying interventions at the individual or group level. In beef operations, the timing of diagnosis,whether by transrectal palpation, ultrasonography, or blood-based pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB) assays,determines how early management changes can be implemented. Transrectal ultrasound can detect pregnancy as early as day 26 to 30, while palpation is reliable from day 35 onward. The detection of conceptus-induced changes in immune cell [gene expression](/blog/guides/gene-expression) has shown that even earlier, non-invasive detection is feasible, with some signals measurable before day 18. Each method has a trade-off between sensitivity, cost, and the need for skilled personnel. Records must also account for the possibility of false positives (e.g., due to embryonic death after a positive signal) or false negatives (e.g., very early detection before implantation is stable). The Merck Veterinary Manual advises that pregnancy diagnosis by rectal palpation is most reliable between 35 and 70 days, and that later diagnoses increase accuracy for determining fetal viability. Clinicians should escalate ambiguous cases to more experienced practitioners or to ultrasound examination. ### Planning Decisions Culling decisions based on pregnancy records should consider the length of the breeding season and the economic value of retaining an open cow for another cycle. The USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) reports that replacement heifer costs and cull cow market prices are key drivers. A cow that is open at the end of a defined breeding period typically costs feed for the year without producing a calf, early identification allows her to be culled before winter feeding costs accumulate. Conversely, cows diagnosed pregnant but later found open (due to abortion or resorption) represent a different risk category. Abortion rates in beef herds vary by geographic region and management, studies on [toxoplasmosis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/toxoplasmosis-feline-transmission-public-health-clinical-management) and other infectious causes highlight the need for serological follow-up when abortion clusters occur. Records that note the gestational stage at diagnosis help differentiate early loss (usually before day 45) from mid- to late-gestation loss (often linked to infectious or toxic agents). The WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code provides guidance on reporting reproductive losses of potential regulatory significance. Nutritional grouping based on pregnancy stage is a direct application of these records. Late-gestation cows have substantially higher energy and protein requirements. Splitting the herd by expected calving date into early-late groups allows precision feeding, reducing feed waste and avoiding metabolic disorders. For instance, over-conditioning in mid-gestation can predispose to abomasal displacement, as noted in risk-factor studies. Conversely, underfeeding late-gestation cows reduces colostrum quality and calf vigor. ### Core Management Framework A structured framework for using pregnancy records integrates them into a closed-loop decision cycle: diagnose, record, group, act, and then evaluate outcomes at the next breeding or calving event. The record should include at minimum: cow ID, date of diagnosis, method used, result (pregnant/open/unsure), estimated fetal age, and any abnormal findings (e.g., mummified fetus, pyometra). This information should be entered into a herd management software or a ledger that can be queried by expected calving date. The USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease surveillance programs emphasize recording reproductive pathology to distinguish normal variation from reportable disease. The use of PSPB radioimmunoassays, first described in the 1980s, offers a blood-based method that does not require rectal manipulation and can be performed in a laboratory. However, these tests detect a protein that persists for several weeks after fetal death, so a positive result may need follow-up ultrasound to confirm viability. The 2006 review of fetal and placental errors in in vitro,produced embryos underscores that even with assisted reproduction, pregnancy failure occurs, records must capture both the initial diagnosis and the final outcome at calving. In the subsequent sections, we will detail how specific record-keeping systems can be constructed, how to interpret ambiguous diagnostic results, and how to link pregnancy data to weaning and lifetime productivity. The remainder of this article will address each of the four decision domains,culling, nutrition, calving, and breeding,with practical recommendations drawn from extension and research literature. ## Using Pregnancy Diagnosis Records to Guide Management Decisions Translating pregnancy diagnosis results into actionable management requires systematic record keeping and clear decision rules. The USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System provides frameworks for herd-level data collection that link individual pregnancy status to subsequent production outcomes. Each pregnancy examination should be recorded with the cow identification, date of diagnosis, estimated stage of gestation, and the method used (transrectal palpation, ultrasonography, or blood test for pregnancy-specific proteins). These records become the foundation for culling, nutritional grouping, calving management, and breeding strategies. ### Production-Stage Decisions from Pregnancy Records **Culling decisions** are the most immediate application. Open cows identified at pregnancy examination can be promptly removed from the breeding herd, avoiding the cost of maintaining nonproductive animals through the winter feeding period. The Merck Veterinary Manual notes that culling open cows after diagnosis reduces feed costs and frees resources for pregnant females. However, the decision must account for replacement availability, market price, and the cow’s age and body condition. A young open cow with good genetic potential may warrant a second breeding opportunity, whereas an older cow with poor history should be culled. Records of previous pregnancy outcomes, calving intervals, and calf weaning weights support these individual decisions. **Nutritional grouping** becomes more precise with pregnancy status confirmed. Pregnant cows in the last trimester have higher energy and protein requirements than open cows or those in early gestation. Separating pregnant from nonpregnant females allows targeted supplementation without overfeeding open animals. The FAO Animal Production and Health guidelines emphasize that overconditioning open cows increases the risk of metabolic disorders and reduces feed efficiency. Feed budgets can be calculated based on the number of confirmed pregnant cows, expected calving dates, and available forage quality. Water intake should also be monitored, dehydrated pregnant cows are at higher risk for dystocia and calf mortality. **Calving management planning** benefits directly from pregnancy dating. When estrous synchronization and fixed-time artificial insemination are used, expected calving dates can be predicted within a narrow window. Records of pregnancy diagnosis at 30 to 45 days by ultrasonography allow grouping of cows into calving periods. This enables allocation of calving pens, timing of vaccination protocols, and scheduling of personnel for night checks. The WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code recommends that calving areas be cleaned and disinfected between groups to reduce pathogen load. Knowing the exact calving window reduces the time cows spend in confinement facilities, lowering the risk of environmental mastitis and neonatal diarrhea. **Breeding decisions** for the subsequent season rely on pregnancy records to calculate conception rates by bull, by service sire, and by breeding method. Records of pregnancy diagnosis combined with breeding dates identify bulls with low fertility or semen handling problems. Cows that conceive early in the breeding season can be rebred on time the next year, while late conceivers may be candidates for culling if they do not calve before the optimal calving window. Whole-herd pregnancy testing at weaning also provides a measure of reproductive efficiency that can be compared with industry benchmarks from the USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System. ### Facilities and Environment Facility design influences the ease and safety of pregnancy diagnosis. Handling systems should include a head gate or palpation cage to minimize cow stress and protect the palpator. Chute-side records require a dry area for writing or electronic data entry. The environment of the diagnosis area must be clean and well lit to reduce the risk of rectal tears and to allow accurate identification. For ultrasound examination, a shaded area or indoor facility is preferable to avoid glare on the screen. After diagnosis, pregnant and open cows should be sorted into separate pens. This requires adequate gatework and penning to handle the flow of animals without crowding. Pens for late-pregnant cows should have good footing, dry bedding, and access to clean water to reduce the risk of abortion caused by falls or stress. ### Nutrition and Water The nutritional program after pregnancy diagnosis must differentiate between the needs of pregnant and nonpregnant cows. Pregnant cows in the last trimester require increased energy density, adequate protein (typically 8 to 10 percent crude protein on a dry matter basis for mature cows in moderate body condition), and balanced minerals including calcium, phosphorus, and trace elements. Selenium and vitamin E supplementation is particularly important for prevention of retained placenta and neonatal weakness. Open cows can be maintained on lower quality forage with less supplementation. However, open cows that are thin should still receive adequate nutrition to improve body condition before winter. Water intake for pregnant cows increases by 20 to 30 percent in the last trimester, water troughs must be sufficient in capacity and kept free of ice or contamination. The risk factors for abomasal volvulus and left displacement are linked to high-concentrate diets and low forage intake, so pregnant cows should not be abruptly switched to high-grain rations. Consistent feeding times and forage quality help maintain rumen health. ### Welfare, Worker Safety, and [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Animal welfare during pregnancy diagnosis is improved by using the least stressful method appropriate for the stage of gestation. Early transrectal ultrasonography is brief and well tolerated when the cow is properly restrained. Late gestation palpation should be performed gently to avoid fetal injury or premature contractions. Handling facilities with non-slip flooring and proper lighting reduce the risk of falls and injury to both cattle and workers. Workers should be trained in proper technique and hygiene, including wearing protective sleeves and washing hands between animals to prevent zoonotic disease transmission. [Toxoplasmosis](/knowledge/parasites/pet-parasites/toxoplasmosis-feline-transmission-public-health-clinical-management), though rare in cattle, has been documented [review of toxoplasmosis in cattle](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0022916539) and can be transmitted through contact with infected tissues [or cat](/knowledge/veterinary-medicine/preventive-care/or-cat-logical-health) feces in feed, workers handling aborted fetuses should wear gloves and disinfect surfaces. [Food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) is indirectly enhanced by culling nonproductive cows, reducing the need for prolonged antibiotic treatments that could lead to residue concerns in cull cows destined for slaughter. Pregnant cows treated for illness should have withdrawal periods observed before shipping. ### Failure Patterns and Practical Monitoring Common failure patterns in using pregnancy diagnosis records include inaccurate dating, failure to identify early embryonic death, and misidentification of cows. Errors in fetal development estimation, particularly with in vitro produced embryos, can lead to incorrect predicted calving dates [Errors in development of fetuses and placentas from in vitro-produced bovine embryos](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/28044455263). Records should be reconciled at calving to compare expected versus actual dates. A high proportion of early embryonic loss may be detected by retesting a subset of cows 60 days after initial diagnosis. Conceptus-induced changes in maternal immune [gene expression](/blog/guides/gene-expression) can now be detected as early as day 18 via blood tests [Conceptus-induced changes in the gene expression of blood immune cells and the ultrasound-accessed luteal function in beef cattle: How early can we detect pregnancy?](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/84930511775), but this remains a research tool, practitioners should rely on confirmed ultrasound or palpation at 30,60 days. Pregnancy-specific protein tests are commercially available and provide a non-invasive option, but they require careful interpretation of results from 28 to 120 days [Detection of pregnancy by radioimmunoassay of a novel pregnancy-specific protein in serum of cows and a profile of serum concentrations during gestation](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/0022804493). False positives from recent abortion or retained fetal membranes must be considered. Practical monitoring includes reviewing pregnancy rates by breeding group, tracking the interval between diagnosis and calving, and calculating the percentage of cows that remain open after two breeding seasons. Any sudden drop in pregnancy rate should prompt an investigation of bull fertility, disease (e.g., BVDV, leptospirosis), or nutrition. Records should be audited annually to identify trends and adjust management accordingly. Veterinary consultation is warranted when herd pregnancy rates fall below 85 percent after a defined breeding season or when abortion rates exceed 2 percent. Beyond the immediate decision to retain or cull, pregnancy diagnosis records form the foundation for herd health surveillance, biosecurity protocols, and long-term sustainability. Systematic analysis of pregnancy outcomes allows producers and veterinarians to detect emerging health problems, manage disease risks, and refine nutritional programs. This section addresses how health observation, biosecurity, diagnostic escalation, and the management of uncertainty can be integrated into a records-based approach, with attention to both animal welfare and environmental sustainability. ## Health Observation Through Pregnancy Records Serial pregnancy diagnosis data enable the early identification of abnormal reproductive patterns. A higher than expected proportion of non-pregnant cows at a given service period may indicate subclinical infectious disease, nutritional deficiency, or management failure. Records that track the timing of pregnancy loss,early versus late gestation,can hint at different etiologies. Early embryonic death may stem from heat stress, poor body condition, or chromosomal abnormalities, whereas mid- to late-term abortions often involve infectious agents such as *Neospora caninum*, *Leptospira* spp., or [bovine viral diarrhea virus](/knowledge/viruses/livestock-viruses/bovine-viral-diarrhea-virus). Toxoplasmosis, though less common in cattle, has been documented as a cause of abortion and should be considered when abortion storms occur, particularly in herds with feline exposure, as reviewed in the literature on toxoplasmosis in cattle (1986). Pregnancy diagnosis records become a screening tool: if a cluster of negative diagnoses or fetal losses appears in a subset of animals (e.g., first-calf heifers or cows in a certain pen), a targeted health investigation is warranted. Regular [body condition scoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/body-condition-scoring-a-tool-for-feed-management), recorded alongside pregnancy status, provides additional health insight. Cows that are thin at diagnosis are at greater risk for metabolic disease and pregnancy failure. Abomasal displacement and abomasal volvulus have been associated with periparturient metabolic stress, records linking pregnancy outcomes to subsequent digestive disorders can help identify management triggers. For example, cows that lost pregnancy early and then developed left abomasal displacement may point to a common nutritional or feeding management failure. Such associations require careful documentation but can improve preventive health planning. ## Biosecurity and Disease Prevention Pregnancy diagnosis records should be integrated with herd biosecurity plans. When replacement females are introduced, their pregnancy status and source herd health history must be documented. The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) Terrestrial Animal Health Code provides guidelines for the movement of cattle to minimize the spread of reproductive diseases such as brucellosis, leptospirosis, and [bovine herpesvirus 1](/knowledge/viruses/livestock-viruses/bovine-herpesvirus-1) (infectious bovine rhinotracheitis). Isolating newly arrived females for at least 30 days and testing for these pathogens before mixing with the resident herd is standard practice. Pregnancy diagnosis at the end of the isolation period confirms that the animal is not carrying an infection acquired during transport that could cause early abortion. Vaccination protocols should be informed by pregnancy risk. Modified live virus vaccines given to pregnant cows can cause fetal infection, therefore, knowing which cows are pregnant before processing is critical. Records allow for segregation of pregnant and non-pregnant cohorts during vaccination campaigns. Similarly, diagnosis records guide timing of deworming and other treatments to avoid stress during critical gestational windows. The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) provides disease surveillance data that can help producers in high-risk regions adjust their biosecurity measures accordingly. Biosecurity also extends to diagnostic equipment. Ultrasound transducers and palpation sleeves can mechanically transmit pathogens if not properly cleaned between animals. A protocol that includes disinfection after each cow or each group is essential, particularly when working through a series of pregnancy checks. Using single-use gloves and probes reduces cross-contamination. ## Diagnostic and Veterinary Escalation A veterinarian should be consulted whenever pregnancy diagnosis results deviate from expected patterns. For example, if a high percentage of cows diagnosed as pregnant at 35 days return as non-pregnant at 60 days, embryonic mortality is occurring. In such cases, the veterinarian can perform additional tests,including ultrasonographic examination of fetal viability, measurement of pregnancy-specific protein B (PSPB) concentrations, and blood sampling for infectious agents. The detection of pregnancy by radioimmunoassay of a novel pregnancy-specific protein in serum (1986) remains a useful confirmatory tool, especially when ultrasound findings are equivocal. Another emerging approach, measuring conceptus-induced changes in [gene expression](/blog/guides/gene-expression) of blood immune cells, may allow for earlier detection of pregnancy failure (2014). However, such methods are not yet widely commercially available and should be used under veterinary guidance. Escalation is also warranted when abnormal fetuses or placentas are observed. Errors in development of fetuses and placentas from in vitro-produced bovine embryos (2006) highlight that assisted reproductive technologies carry increased risks of structural anomalies. If a pregnant cow derived from embryo transfer shows signs of fetal ultrasonographic abnormality,such as severe hydrops, anasarca, or missed heart beat,immediate veterinary assessment is needed. These anomalies can lead to dystocia, retained placenta, and maternal death. Cows with a history of dystocia, retained placenta, or metritis should be flagged in records. Their subsequent pregnancy outcomes inform both culling decisions and the need for enhanced monitoring during the next gestation. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides standard protocols for managing such high-risk cows. ## Uncertainty in Pregnancy Diagnosis No diagnostic method is perfectly accurate. Transrectal palpation, ultrasonography, and serum PSPB tests all have windows of error, particularly in the first 35 days of gestation. Early pregnancy tests (ultrasound before day 28) can miss a small embryo or mistake a corpus luteum of the cycle for pregnancy. False negatives are more common than false positives in skilled hands, but false positives can occur when early embryonic death leaves a detectable placental remnant. Therefore, a single negative diagnosis in a cow that was previously bred should not be the sole basis for culling. A second examination 30 to 40 days later is recommended unless the cow exhibits clear signs of return to estrus. Uncertainty also arises with the use of fixed-time artificial insemination (FTAI) protocols. If a cow is diagnosed non-pregnant at day 45 but had no observed estrus, she may have cycled without overt signs. Such cows can be resynchronized, but the decision to treat or cull requires weighing age, body condition, and historical reproductive efficiency. Her records provide that context. The USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System (NAHMS) data on beef cow reproduction can help benchmark against industry averages, though individual herd thresholds should be set with a veterinarian. ## Sustainability Through Informed Decisions Precision reproduction reduces waste. A cow that remains open through two or more cycles consumes feed, pasture, and labor without producing a calf. Her resource use footprint per kilogram of weaned calf is high. Culling these animals,based on reliable diagnosis records,improves the herd’s overall feed conversion efficiency and lowers greenhouse gas emissions per unit of beef produced. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) emphasizes that sustainable livestock production relies on maximizing output per animal while minimizing environmental burden. A reproductive records system is a direct tool to achieve this. Moreover, controlling gestation length by grouping cows according to pregnancy stage allows for targeted supplementation. Late-gestation cows have different protein and energy requirements than dry non-pregnant cows. Nutritional grouping reduces feed cost and avoids overconditioning or underfeeding. This precision also helps synchronize calving to match forage availability, reducing the need for supplemental feed inputs. Sustainability in beef production is also about reducing emissions but also about improving herd health and welfare, a cow that calves on schedule with adequate body condition is less prone to disease and has a shorter recovery to rebreeding. Finally, records that capture pregnancy outcomes across years enable selection of more fertile replacement heifers. Over time, the herd becomes more reproductively efficient, requiring fewer replacements and reducing the environmental cost of raising them. Biosecurity and health observation are not tangential to sustainability,they are its foundation. ## Frequently Asked Questions **Q1: How often should I perform pregnancy diagnosis on my beef cows?** Pregnancy diagnosis is typically done 35 to 60 days after the end of the breeding season. A second check at 90 to 120 days can confirm fetal viability and help plan winter feeding. **Q2: What is the most accurate method for early pregnancy detection?** Transrectal ultrasonography performed by an experienced operator is highly accurate from day 28 onward. Serum pregnancy-specific protein B tests are also reliable but have a higher likelihood of false positives due to residual placental protein after early embryonic death. **Q3: Can a cow lose a pregnancy after a positive diagnosis?** Yes. Embryonic and fetal loss can occur at any stage. The highest risk is in the first 42 days. Records should note whether a cow diagnosed pregnant later returns to estrus or is found open on a subsequent check. **Q4: What infectious diseases should I suspect if I see an abortion cluster?** [Bovine viral diarrhea virus](/knowledge/viruses/livestock-viruses/bovine-viral-diarrhea-virus), *Neospora caninum*, *Leptospira* spp., *Campylobacter fetus*, and *[Toxoplasma gondii](/knowledge/parasites/protozoa/toxoplasma-gondii-lifecycle-neurological-infection)* are common causes. Work with your veterinarian to submit samples from aborted fetuses and placenta for laboratory testing. **Q5: Should I separate pregnant from non-pregnant cows after diagnosis?** Yes. Grouping by pregnancy status allows tailored feeding and health management. It also reduces stress on pregnant cows from competition with open cows. **Q6: How does pregnancy diagnosis help with culling decisions?** A cow that fails to conceive after a defined breeding period (e.g., 60,90 days) or that has repeated pregnancy loss should be culled. Records of her age, parity, and previous performance inform this decision. **Q7: What biosecurity steps should I take when a new pregnant cow arrives?** Quarantine her for 30 days, test for brucellosis, leptospirosis, and bovine viral diarrhea virus, and vaccinate according to your herd protocol before mixing with the resident herd. **Q8: Can pregnancy records help reduce my herd’s environmental footprint?** Yes. By culling open cows and managing pregnant groups precisely, you reduce waste feed, lower emissions per calf weaned, and improve overall efficiency. This aligns with FAO sustainability goals. --- ### Educational Veterinary Notice This article is intended for educational purposes and provides general guidance on interpreting beef cow pregnancy diagnosis records for health, biosecurity, and management decisions. It does not replace a valid veterinarian-client-patient relationship. Diagnostic thresholds, treatment protocols, and culling criteria should be established in consultation with a licensed veterinarian who is familiar with your herd’s history and local disease risks. Always comply with official animal health regulations and the WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code regarding reportable diseases. When in doubt, confirm pregnancy status with a repeat examination and seek veterinary advice for any cluster of reproductive failure. ## Related Farming Guides - [Beef Cattle Farming Forage Reproduction Calving Health Signals And Herd Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-farming-forage-reproduction-calving-health-signals-and-herd-management) - [Beef Cattle Body Condition Scoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-body-condition-scoring) - [Calving Management For Beef Herds](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/calving-management-for-beef-herds) - [Rotational Grazing For Beef Cattle](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/rotational-grazing-for-beef-cattle) - [Beef Herd Biosecurity Plan](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-herd-biosecurity-plan) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Cattle Head Gate Selection and Adjustment](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/cattle-head-gate-selection-and-adjustment) * [Beef Cattle Handling Facility Flow](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-handling-facility-flow) * [Beef Cattle Maternity Pen Design: Comfort and Monitoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/beef-cattle-maternity-pen-design-comfort-monitoring) ## References and Further Reading - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en/) - [WOAH Terrestrial Animal Health Code](https://www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online-access/) - [USDA APHIS Livestock and Poultry Disease](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease) - [Merck Veterinary Manual](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/) - [USDA National Animal Health Monitoring System](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/nahms) > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.