# Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture (IMTA) Systems ## Key Takeaways - Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture (IMTA) synergistically combines fed species (e.g., finfish, shrimp) with extractive species (seaweeds, filter-feeding shellfish, deposit feeders) to convert waste nutrients into marketable biomass, thereby reducing environmental discharge and enhancing resource utilization. - The core principle of IMTA involves mimicking natural ecosystem processes by integrating organisms from different trophic levels, where waste products from fed species (feces, uneaten feed, dissolved nutrients like ammonia and phosphate) serve as inputs for extractive species. - Inorganic extractive species like seaweeds and duckweed absorb dissolved inorganic nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus) through their thalli, while organic extractive species such as mussels and oysters filter suspended particulate organic matter, and deposit feeders consume settled organic waste. - Successful IMTA implementation necessitates careful species selection based on complementary feeding habits and overlapping environmental tolerances (temperature, pH, salinity), alongside precise nutrient flow management to match waste output with extractive species uptake capacity, preventing system overloading or underloading. - System configurations for IMTA include open water (cages/pens near rafts/lines), land-based recirculating systems (RAS), and freshwater systems utilizing species like duckweed, each requiring specific design considerations for water flow and nutrient distribution. - Practical implementation involves site assessment, species matching, system design (open water, land-based, freshwater), phased stocking, continuous monitoring of water quality and growth, and strategic harvesting to ensure ongoing nutrient removal and economic viability. --- Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a production approach where fed species (finfish or shrimp) are combined with extractive species (seaweeds, filter-feeding shellfish, and deposit feeders) in a single system to capture and convert waste nutrients into marketable biomass. This article explains IMTA principles, species combinations, system design considerations, and environmental benefits for aquaculture farmers and researchers exploring sustainable production methods. ## At a Glance | Component | Fed Species Example | Extractive Species Example | Primary Function | |-----------|-------------------|---------------------------|------------------| | Finfish or shrimp | Salmon, seabream, milkfish | Not applicable | Receive formulated feed, produce waste nutrients | | Inorganic extractive | Not applicable | Seaweeds (Chaetomorpha, Gracilaria), duckweed | Absorb dissolved nitrogen and phosphorus | | Organic extractive | Not applicable | Mussels, oysters, clams | Filter suspended solids and phytoplankton | | Deposit feeders | Not applicable | Sea cucumbers, polychaete worms | Consume settled organic waste on sediments | ## Core Principles of IMTA IMTA systems mimic natural ecosystem processes by combining organisms from different trophic levels. Fed species receive formulated feed, and their waste products become nutrients for extractive species. This arrangement reduces nutrient discharge to the environment while producing additional crops. The approach is described in the literature as an environmentally friendly system for sustainable aquaculture, with functionality depending on species selection and system configuration [5]. The biological compartments in an IMTA system each contribute to nutrient removal. A study analyzing duckweed-based water remediation found that different organisms within the system played distinct roles in capturing and processing waste nutrients [6]. Farmers must understand these roles to design effective combinations. ### Trophic Level Integration Fed species produce solid wastes (feces and uneaten feed) and dissolved wastes (ammonia, urea, phosphate). Extractive species capture these wastes. Seaweeds absorb dissolved inorganic nutrients through their thalli. Filter-feeding shellfish remove suspended particulate organic matter. Deposit feeders process settled solids on the pond or tank bottom. The consumer-driven nutrient recycling of freshwater decapods has been linked to ecological theories applicable in IMTA design [10]. This means that the feeding and excretion behaviors of shrimp or crayfish can influence nutrient availability for plants and other extractive organisms. ### Nutrient Flow Management Effective IMTA requires matching the nutrient output of fed species to the uptake capacity of extractive species. Overloading extractive organisms leads to water quality deterioration. Underloading reduces their growth and economic return. Farmers must monitor nutrient concentrations and adjust stocking densities or feeding rates accordingly. Wastewater valorization in IMTA systems has been assessed for nutrient removal and biomass production using duckweed species [7]. This research demonstrates that extractive plants can convert waste nutrients into harvestable protein-rich biomass. ## System Design and Configuration IMTA systems can be designed in several configurations depending on farm location, species selection, and management goals. ### Open Water IMTA In coastal or lake environments, farmers can place cages or pens of fed species near lines or rafts of seaweeds and shellfish. The extractive species are positioned to receive the water flow carrying waste from the fed species. This configuration requires careful hydrodynamic modeling to ensure adequate nutrient exposure. Regional Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (RIMTA) describes systems where components are spatially separated but ecologically linked [8]. This approach allows farms to locate extractive species at distances that optimize nutrient capture without compromising water quality for any component. ### Land-Based IMTA Recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS) can incorporate IMTA components. Water from fish or shrimp tanks flows through seaweed tanks, then through shellfish or deposit feeder units before returning to the fed species. This closed-loop design maximizes nutrient capture and water reuse. A farm-scale multitrophic recirculating aquaculture system with the addition of Rhodovulum sulfidophilum was investigated for milkfish coastal aquaculture [11]. This study shows that bacteria can be included as an additional trophic level to process organic wastes and improve water quality. ### Freshwater IMTA Freshwater integrated multitrophic aquaculture systems use species adapted to low-salinity conditions. Duckweed species are common extractive plants in freshwater IMTA. Their rapid growth and high protein content make them suitable for nutrient removal and as feed ingredients. The analysis of different biological compartments in a duckweed-based water remediation system provides insights into how freshwater IMTA can be optimized [6]. Farmers can use this information to select appropriate duckweed species and manage harvest schedules. ## Species Selection and Combinations Choosing compatible species is critical for IMTA success. Species must share similar environmental tolerances (temperature, pH, salinity) and have complementary feeding habits. ### Fed Species Options Common fed species in IMTA include salmon, seabream, seabass, milkfish, tilapia, and shrimp. The choice depends on local market demand, regulatory environment, and farm infrastructure. Farmers should consult the FAO Cultured Species database for information on species requirements and production methods [1]. ### Extractive Species Options Seaweeds suitable for IMTA include Chaetomorpha linum, Gracilaria species, and Ulva species. The seaweed Chaetomorpha linum cultivated in an IMTA system has been investigated as a tool for microplastic bioremediation [9]. This additional environmental service may be relevant for farms in polluted waters. Filter-feeding shellfish options include mussels (Mytilus species), oysters (Crassostrea species), and clams (Venerupis species). These organisms remove suspended solids and phytoplankton from the water column. Deposit feeders include sea cucumbers (Holothuria species) and polychaete worms. These organisms process settled organic matter and can be harvested for sale or used as feed ingredients. ### Compatibility Assessment Farmers must assess compatibility before combining species. Key factors include: - Temperature tolerance range overlap - Salinity tolerance range overlap - pH tolerance range overlap - Dissolved oxygen requirements - Disease susceptibility and transmission risk - Harvest timing and market windows ## Practical Implementation Steps Implementing an IMTA system requires careful planning and phased execution. ### Step 1: Site Assessment Evaluate water quality parameters, flow rates, and nutrient loading capacity. Measure temperature, salinity, pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and phosphate at multiple points throughout the year. Record seasonal variations that may affect species performance. ### Step 2: Species Selection Choose fed species based on market demand and farm expertise. Select extractive species that can tolerate the same environmental conditions and have proven nutrient uptake capacity. Consult the USDA ARS Aquaculture program for research on species performance in integrated systems [2]. ### Step 3: System Design Determine the configuration (open water, land-based, or hybrid) and calculate the required biomass of extractive species to match nutrient output. Design water flow paths to maximize nutrient exposure for extractive organisms. ### Step 4: Stocking and Monitoring Stock fed species at commercial densities. Introduce extractive species at conservative initial densities. Monitor water quality daily and adjust feeding rates or stocking densities based on results. ### Step 5: Harvest and Replanting Harvest extractive species when they reach market size or when nutrient uptake declines. Replant or restock to maintain continuous nutrient removal capacity. ## Records and Measurements Maintaining detailed records is essential for optimizing IMTA performance. ### Water Quality Records Record daily measurements of temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, and salinity. Record weekly measurements of ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, and phosphate. Note any unusual readings and corrective actions taken. ### Growth Records Measure and record growth rates of fed and extractive species at regular intervals. For seaweeds, record biomass wet weight and dry weight. For shellfish, record shell length and meat weight. For deposit feeders, record individual weight and population density. ### Feed Records Record feed type, amount, and frequency for fed species. Calculate [feed conversion ratio](/knowledge/animal-farming/poultry/feed-conversion-ratio-measuring-improving-poultry-efficiency) (FCR) and nutrient loading rates. Adjust feeding based on water quality monitoring results. ### Harvest Records Record harvest weights, dates, and market prices for all species. Calculate economic return per unit of nutrient removed. Compare performance across different species combinations and system configurations. ## Common Failure Patterns Farmers should be aware of common problems in IMTA systems. ### Nutrient Imbalance If extractive species cannot keep pace with nutrient loading, water quality deteriorates. Signs include elevated ammonia or nitrite levels, algal blooms, and reduced growth in fed species. Solutions include reducing feeding rates, increasing extractive species biomass, or improving water exchange. ### Species Incompatibility Some species may compete for resources or transmit diseases. For example, shellfish can harbor pathogens that affect finfish. Farmers should research disease risks and implement biosecurity measures. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare in aquaculture systems [4]. ### Harvest Timing Conflicts Different species may reach market size at different times, complicating harvest logistics. Farmers should plan harvest schedules to minimize disruption to the system. Sequential harvesting of extractive species can maintain continuous nutrient removal. ### Environmental Stress Extreme weather events, temperature fluctuations, or pollution events can stress IMTA systems. Farmers should have contingency plans for power outages, water supply interruptions, and disease outbreaks. ## Limitations and Constraints IMTA systems have limitations that farmers must consider. ### Economic Viability The additional infrastructure and management complexity of IMTA may increase costs. Farmers must assess whether the revenue from extractive species offsets these costs. Market prices for seaweeds, shellfish, and deposit feeders vary by region. ### Regulatory Barriers Some jurisdictions have regulations that restrict the combination of species or the use of certain extractive organisms. Farmers should consult local authorities before implementing IMTA. The FAO Animal Production and Health division provides guidance on sustainable aquaculture practices [3]. ### Technical Expertise Successful IMTA requires knowledge of multiple species and their interactions. Farmers may need training or consultation with researchers. Extension services and university programs can provide technical support. ### Scale Limitations IMTA systems may be more difficult to manage at very large scales. Nutrient distribution and water flow must be carefully controlled to ensure all components receive adequate resources. ## Welfare and Safety Context Animal welfare and worker safety are important considerations in IMTA systems. ### Fed Species Welfare Fed species must have adequate space, water quality, and nutrition. Overcrowding or poor water quality can cause stress and disease. Farmers should monitor behavior, feed intake, and health indicators. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal welfare standards for aquaculture [4]. ### Extractive Species Welfare Extractive species also require appropriate conditions. Seaweeds need adequate light and nutrient concentrations. Shellfish need clean water and appropriate flow rates. Deposit feeders need suitable substrate and organic matter availability. ### Worker Safety IMTA systems involve multiple production components, increasing the complexity of farm operations. Workers must be trained in safe handling of equipment, chemicals, and harvested products. Personal protective equipment should be used when handling feed, cleaning tanks, or processing harvests. ### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) All harvested products must meet [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) standards. Farmers should follow good aquaculture practices (GAP) and hazard analysis critical control point (HACCP) principles. Record keeping is essential for traceability and regulatory compliance. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Farmers should seek professional assistance when certain conditions arise. ### Water Quality Deterioration If ammonia or nitrite levels exceed safe thresholds for fed species despite corrective actions, consult a water quality specialist or extension agent. Persistent problems may indicate system design flaws or species incompatibility. ### Disease Outbreaks If disease signs appear in any species, isolate affected organisms and consult a veterinarian or aquatic animal health specialist. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on disease diagnosis and management [4]. ### Regulatory Compliance Issues If regulatory authorities raise concerns about IMTA operations, consult legal counsel or industry associations. Noncompliance can result in fines, permit revocation, or legal action. ### Economic Performance Decline If IMTA systems consistently underperform economically, consult a farm business advisor or agricultural economist. Changes in species selection, system design, or market strategy may be needed. ## Practical Decision Framework for IMTA System Design and Species Matching Selecting the correct species combination and system configuration requires a structured decision process that accounts for farm-specific conditions, nutrient loading rates, and market opportunities. This section provides a practical framework that farmers can apply when designing or modifying an IMTA system, along with a record system for tracking performance and a troubleshooting method for common operational problems. ### Step-by-Step Species Matching Protocol The first decision point is matching the nutrient output of fed species to the uptake capacity of extractive species. Begin by calculating the daily nitrogen and phosphorus loading from your fed species. For finfish, use the formula: daily feed input (kg) multiplied by the crude protein content of the feed (typically 35-45 percent) multiplied by 0.16 (the nitrogen fraction in protein). For shrimp, use the same calculation but adjust for lower feed conversion ratios. Record these values in a nutrient budget worksheet. Next, identify extractive species that can tolerate the same temperature, salinity, and pH range as your fed species. The FAO Cultured Species database provides environmental tolerance data for commercially important species [1]. Create a compatibility matrix listing your fed species and potential extractive species, marking overlapping tolerance ranges. Eliminate any combination where tolerances do not overlap by at least 5 degrees Celsius for temperature and 5 parts per thousand for salinity. For inorganic extractive species such as seaweeds and duckweed, calculate the required biomass using published nitrogen uptake rates. A study on duckweed-based water remediation in IMTA systems demonstrated that different plant species have varying nutrient removal capacities, with some achieving higher biomass production under specific nutrient concentrations [6]. As a starting point, assume that seaweeds can remove 1-2 grams of nitrogen per square meter per day, and duckweed can remove 2-4 grams of nitrogen per square meter per day. Adjust these estimates based on local light conditions and water temperature. For organic extractive species such as mussels and oysters, calculate the required biomass based on suspended solids loading. Filter-feeding shellfish can remove 10-30 percent of suspended solids from the water column per pass, depending on flow rate and shellfish density. The Regional Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (RIMTA) concept describes how spatially separated components can be ecologically linked, allowing farmers to position extractive species at distances that optimize nutrient capture [8]. ### System Configuration Decision Tree Use the following decision tree to select the appropriate IMTA configuration for your farm: 1. Is your farm located in open coastal waters with adequate water exchange? - Yes: Consider open water IMTA with cages or pens for fed species and longlines or rafts for seaweeds and shellfish. Ensure water flow direction carries waste from fed species to extractive species. - No: Proceed to question 2. 2. Do you have access to land with reliable water supply and drainage? - Yes: Consider land-based IMTA with tanks or ponds. Water from fed species units flows through seaweed tanks, then shellfish or deposit feeder units before treatment and recirculation. A farm-scale multitrophic recirculating system with the addition of Rhodovulum sulfidophilum has been investigated for milkfish coastal aquaculture, demonstrating that bacteria can be included as an additional trophic level [11]. - No: Proceed to question 3. 3. Is your farm located in a freshwater environment with limited space? - Yes: Consider freshwater IMTA using duckweed as the primary extractive species. Duckweed species have been assessed for nutrient removal and biomass production in integrated systems, with some species achieving high protein content suitable for feed ingredients [7]. ### Record System for IMTA Performance Tracking Maintain a standardized record system to track system performance and identify problems early. Use the following template for weekly records: | Parameter | Fed Species Unit | Seaweed Unit | Shellfish Unit | Deposit Feeder Unit | |-----------|-----------------|--------------|----------------|---------------------| | Temperature (C) | | | | | | Dissolved oxygen (mg/L) | | | | | | pH | | | | | | Salinity (ppt) | | | | | | Ammonia (mg/L) | | | | | | Nitrite (mg/L) | | | | | | Nitrate (mg/L) | | | | | | Phosphate (mg/L) | | | | | | Total suspended solids (mg/L) | | | | | Record growth metrics for each species at monthly intervals. For seaweeds, measure wet weight per square meter and calculate daily growth rate. For shellfish, measure shell length and meat weight for a sample of 30 individuals. For deposit feeders, measure individual weight and count population density. For fed species, record feed input, [feed conversion ratio](/knowledge/animal-farming/poultry/feed-conversion-ratio-measuring-improving-poultry-efficiency), and mortality. The consumer-driven nutrient recycling of freshwater decapods has been linked to ecological theories applicable in IMTA design, meaning that the feeding and excretion behaviors of shrimp or crayfish can influence nutrient availability for plants and other extractive organisms [10]. Record any observations of feeding behavior or waste production patterns. ### Troubleshooting Method for Common Operational Problems When system performance declines, use the following troubleshooting method to identify and correct the problem. **Problem 1: Elevated ammonia or nitrite levels in fed species unit** Possible causes and solutions: - Extractive species biomass is insufficient. Calculate current nutrient loading and compare to extractive species uptake capacity. Increase seaweed or duckweed biomass by 20-30 percent. - Water flow rate is too low. Measure flow rate and increase by 25-50 percent to improve nutrient distribution. - Feeding rate is too high. Reduce daily feed input by 10-15 percent until water quality improves. - Temperature or pH is outside optimal range for extractive species. Check environmental conditions and adjust if possible. **Problem 2: Poor growth of extractive species** Possible causes and solutions: - Nutrient concentration is too low for optimal growth. Increase feeding rate or reduce extractive species biomass. - Light is limiting for seaweeds or duckweed. Provide supplemental lighting or reduce shading from structures. - Water flow is too high, washing away nutrients before uptake. Reduce flow rate or increase retention time. - Disease or predation is affecting extractive species. Inspect organisms for signs of disease and consult the USDA National Agricultural Library resources on animal health and welfare [4]. **Problem 3: Accumulation of settled solids in deposit feeder unit** Possible causes and solutions: - Deposit feeder population is too low. Increase stocking density by 20-30 percent. - Organic matter loading exceeds processing capacity. Reduce feeding rate or increase water exchange. - Substrate is unsuitable for deposit feeders. Add sand or gravel to improve habitat. **Problem 4: Algal blooms in water column** Possible causes and solutions: - Nutrient loading exceeds uptake capacity of seaweeds or duckweed. Increase extractive species biomass or reduce feeding rate. - Water exchange is insufficient. Increase flow rate or add aeration. - Filter-feeding shellfish are not removing enough phytoplankton. Increase shellfish biomass or improve water flow through shellfish unit. ### Economic Performance Assessment Track economic performance using the following metrics: - Revenue per unit of nutrient removed: Calculate total revenue from all species divided by total nitrogen removed. - Cost per kilogram of fed species produced: Include feed, labor, infrastructure, and extractive species costs. - Break-even price for extractive species: Calculate the minimum market price needed to cover production costs. Compare these metrics across different species combinations and system configurations. The seaweed Chaetomorpha linum cultivated in an IMTA system has been investigated for microplastic bioremediation, which may provide additional environmental services that could be monetized through certification programs or premium pricing [9]. ### Professional Escalation Criteria for System Design Issues Seek professional assistance when: - Nutrient loading calculations indicate that extractive species cannot achieve required uptake capacity within available space or environmental constraints. - Water quality parameters remain outside safe ranges for fed species despite multiple corrective actions. - Economic analysis shows consistent negative returns after three production cycles. - Regulatory authorities require technical documentation or environmental impact assessments that exceed farm expertise. The USDA ARS Aquaculture program provides research on species performance in integrated systems and can be consulted for technical guidance [2]. The FAO Animal Production and Health division offers resources on sustainable aquaculture practices and can assist with regulatory compliance [3]. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the difference between IMTA and polyculture? IMTA combines species from different trophic levels (fed and extractive) to capture waste nutrients. Polyculture typically combines species that do not compete for the same resources but may not include extractive organisms. IMTA specifically aims to reduce environmental impact by recycling nutrients. ### Can IMTA be used in freshwater systems? Yes, freshwater IMTA systems use species adapted to low-salinity conditions. Duckweed species are common extractive plants in freshwater IMTA. Research has analyzed nutrient removal and biomass production by duckweed species in integrated systems [7]. ### What are the best seaweed species for IMTA? Suitable seaweed species include Chaetomorpha linum, Gracilaria species, and Ulva species. The seaweed Chaetomorpha linum has been investigated for microplastic bioremediation in IMTA systems [9]. Species selection depends on local environmental conditions and market demand. ### How do I calculate the required biomass of extractive species? Calculate the nutrient output of fed species based on feed input and feed conversion ratio. Then determine the nutrient uptake capacity of extractive species based on published growth rates and tissue nutrient content. Adjust stocking densities to match nutrient loading rates. ### What are the main challenges in IMTA implementation? Main challenges include nutrient imbalance, species incompatibility, harvest timing conflicts, and economic viability. Farmers must carefully plan system design, species selection, and management protocols to address these challenges. ### Can IMTA reduce disease risk in aquaculture? IMTA may reduce disease risk by improving water quality and reducing stress on fed species. However, some extractive species can harbor pathogens that affect finfish. Farmers should implement biosecurity measures and monitor all species for disease signs. ### Is IMTA suitable for small-scale farms? IMTA can be adapted to small-scale farms, but the additional infrastructure and management complexity may increase costs. Small-scale farmers should start with simple systems and expand as they gain experience. Extension services can provide technical support. ### What records should I keep for IMTA systems? Maintain records of water quality parameters, growth rates, feed inputs, harvest weights, and economic performance. Detailed records help optimize system performance and demonstrate compliance with regulatory requirements. ## Related Farming Guides - [Recirculating Aquaculture System Basics](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/recirculating-aquaculture-system-basics) - [Systems Biology](/blog/news/systems-biology) - [Aquaculture Solids Management Settling Filtration Sludge And Disposal](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/aquaculture-solids-management-settling-filtration-sludge-and-disposal) - [Aquaculture Vaccination Planning And Records](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/aquaculture-vaccination-planning-and-records) - [Aquaculture Algal Bloom Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/aquaculture-algal-bloom-management) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Pond Sediment Management and Dredging Options](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/pond-sediment-management-dredging-options) * [Indoor Aquaculture Facilities: Lighting and Insulation](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/indoor-aquaculture-facilities-lighting-insulation) * [Greenhouse Aquaculture: Extending Growing Seasons](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/greenhouse-aquaculture-extending-growing-seasons) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/culturedspecies) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection/aquaculture) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Integrated multitrophic aquaculture (IMTA) as an environmentally friendly system for sustainable aquaculture: functionality, species, and application of biofloc technology (BFT).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35922597). Environmental science and pollution research international, 2022. - [Integrated Multitrophic Aquaculture, Analysing Contributions of Different Biological Compartments to Nutrient Removal in a Duckweed-Based Water Remediation System.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/36432832). Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 2022. - [Wastewater valorisation in an integrated multitrophic aquaculture system, assessing nutrient removal and biomass production by duckweed species.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35227845). Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987), 2022. - [Regional Integrated Multi-Trophic Aquaculture (RIMTA): Spatially separated, ecologically linked.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32579516). Journal of environmental management, 2020. - [The seaweed Chaetomorpha linum cultivated in an integrated multitrophic aquaculture system: A new tool for microplastic bioremediation?](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39278482). The Science of the total environment, 2024. - [Consumer-driven nutrient recycling of freshwater decapods: Linking ecological theories and application in integrated multitrophic aquaculture.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37883508). PloS one, 2023. - [Investigation of a farm-scale multitrophic recirculating aquaculture system with the addition of Rhodovulum sulfidophilum for milkfish (Chanos chanos) coastal aquaculture](https://doi.org/10.3390/su11071880). Sustainability Switzerland, 2019. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.