# Hatchery Live Feed Enrichment and Weaning Strategies ## Key Takeaways - **Nutritional Deficiencies in Live Feeds Necessitate Enrichment:** Standard hatchery-produced rotifers and Artemia lack essential nutrients, particularly highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) like DHA and EPA, critical for larval fish and shellfish development. Enrichment protocols, utilizing commercial emulsions, microalgae pastes, or yeast-based boosters, are vital to incorporate these nutrients into live prey before feeding to larvae, preventing poor growth, skeletal deformities, and increased disease susceptibility. - **Specific Enrichment Parameters for Rotifers and Artemia:** Rotifer enrichment typically lasts 6-24 hours, focusing on HUFA, vitamins, and amino acids, with quality assessed by fatty acid profiles and rotifer density. Artemia enrichment, for nauplii (12-24 hours) and adults (24-48 hours), targets HUFA and carotenoids, with quality indicated by nauplii size, survival, and enrichment efficiency. Common failure points include over-enrichment leading to mortality or bacterial blooms. - **Gradual Weaning with Co-feeding is Crucial:** Weaning from live feeds to microdiets should be gradual, initiated based on larval developmental stage and gut maturation, often triggered by larval age, size, or functional stomach development. Co-feeding, where live feeds and microdiets are offered simultaneously for 5-14 days, allows larvae to adapt, with the proportion of live feed progressively reduced while microdiet intake increases. - **Microdiet Selection Hinges on Particle Size, Stability, and Attractability:** Microdiets for weaning must match larval mouth gape (50-400 microns), possess a nutrient profile meeting larval requirements, and include attractants like amino acids or hydrolysates. Crucially, microdiets need low leaching rates to maintain water quality and appropriate buoyancy for availability in the larval feeding zone. - **Rigorous Record Keeping and Data Analysis Drive Protocol Optimization:** Maintaining detailed records of live feed enrichment protocols (product, concentration, duration, temperature), weaning schedules (feed proportions, dates), microdiet specifications (particle size, batch), feeding rates, larval growth, survival, and water quality is essential. Analyzing this data allows for the identification of correlations between enrichment strategies and larval performance, informing continuous improvement of hatchery protocols. --- Larval rearing success in fish and shellfish hatcheries depends on delivering nutritionally complete live feeds and executing timely weaning to microdiets. This article provides hatchery technicians and nutritionists with practical enrichment protocols for rotifers and Artemia, weaning schedules, and microdiet selection criteria based on current research and industry practices. ## At a Glance | Parameter | Rotifer Enrichment | Artemia Enrichment | Weaning to Microdiet | |-----------|-------------------|-------------------|---------------------| | Primary nutrients | Highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA), vitamins, amino acids | HUFA, carotenoids, probiotics | Protein, lipids, attractants, particle stability | | Enrichment duration | 6-24 hours depending on temperature and product | 12-24 hours for nauplii, 24-48 hours for adults | Not applicable | | Typical enrichment products | Commercial emulsions, microalgae pastes, yeast-based boosters | Commercial emulsions, microalgae (Isochrysis, Porphyridium), probiotics | Microdiets sized 50-400 microns | | Key quality indicators | Enrichment efficiency measured by fatty acid profile, rotifer density post-enrichment | Enrichment efficiency, nauplii size, survival during enrichment | Particle size distribution, leaching rate, attractability | | Common failure points | Over-enrichment causing rotifer mortality, bacterial blooms | Incomplete enrichment, poor nauplii quality, oxidation of oils | Poor acceptance, nutrient leaching, water quality deterioration | ## Live Feed Enrichment Principles ### Why Enrichment Is Necessary Rotifers and Artemia produced under standard hatchery conditions lack sufficient levels of essential nutrients, particularly highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) such as docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), that marine fish and shellfish larvae require for normal development. The natural diet of these live feeds in culture systems consists of yeast, microalgae, or commercial diets that do not provide adequate nutritional profiles for larval predators. Enrichment is the process of feeding live prey a nutrient-dense formulation for a defined period before they are fed to larvae, allowing the prey to accumulate these nutrients in their tissues and gut contents. The importance of live feed nutritional status for aquatic animal health has been reviewed extensively, with essential nutrients including HUFA, vitamins, and amino acids being critical for larval growth, survival, and stress resistance (Enhancement of Live Food Nutritional Status with Essential Nutrients for Improving Aquatic Animal Health: A Review, PubMed, 2020). Without proper enrichment, larvae may exhibit poor growth, high mortality, skeletal deformities, and increased susceptibility to disease. ### Enrichment Products and Formulations Commercial enrichment products are available in several forms, including oil emulsions, microalgae pastes, and dry powders. Each formulation type has specific handling requirements and enrichment efficiencies. Oil emulsions provide high concentrations of HUFA but require careful emulsification and aeration to prevent oil separation and surface film formation. Microalgae-based products, such as those derived from Isochrysis galbana, offer a more natural lipid profile along with antioxidants that may improve prey oxidative status (Exploring Isochrysis galbana Biomass Formats: Effects on Live Prey Oxidative Status and Lipid Profiles for Their Potential Use in Aquaculture Larval Nutrition, Aquaculture Nutrition, 2025). The development of new enrichment products continues to focus on improving nutrient delivery while minimizing negative effects on live feed health (The development of new enrichment products and strategies for live feed in fish hatcheries, Communications in Agricultural and Applied Biological Sciences, 2013). Hatchery managers should evaluate enrichment products based on their fatty acid profile, vitamin content, particle size, and compatibility with existing culture systems. ### Enrichment Protocols and Management Standard enrichment protocols involve adding the enrichment product to the live feed culture at a specific concentration, typically 0.1-0.5 g/L for emulsions or 1-5 million cells/mL for microalgae, depending on the product manufacturer recommendations. Enrichment duration varies by live feed species and temperature. Rotifers are typically enriched for 6-24 hours, with shorter durations at higher temperatures. Artemia nauplii require 12-24 hours for adequate HUFA incorporation, while adult Artemia may need 24-48 hours. Critical management factors during enrichment include: - Maintaining adequate dissolved oxygen levels above 5 mg/L - Providing sufficient aeration to keep particles in suspension - Monitoring temperature within the optimal range for the live feed species - Preventing bacterial overgrowth through proper hygiene and enrichment duration limits - Avoiding over-enrichment that can cause live feed mortality or reduced feeding activity ## Rotifer Enrichment ### Enrichment Timing and Density Rotifers are typically enriched in dedicated tanks separate from the main culture system. Enrichment density should be maintained between 200-500 rotifers/mL, depending on the enrichment product and target nutrient levels. Higher densities may result in incomplete enrichment due to competition for the enrichment particles, while lower densities reduce production efficiency. The enrichment period for rotifers is generally 6-12 hours when using commercial emulsions at 25-28°C. Longer enrichment periods of 12-24 hours may be used with microalgae-based products or when targeting higher HUFA levels. Rotifers should be harvested and fed to larvae immediately after enrichment to minimize nutrient loss and degradation. ### Monitoring Enrichment Success Hatchery technicians should monitor rotifer enrichment success through several parameters: - Rotifer density and motility post-enrichment - Presence of enrichment particles in rotifer guts visible under microscope - Fatty acid analysis of enriched rotifers on a regular basis - Larval growth and survival as indirect indicators of enrichment quality Records of enrichment product batch numbers, concentrations used, enrichment duration, and rotifer density should be maintained for each production cycle. Any deviation from standard protocols should be documented along with observed effects on larval performance. ### Common Rotifer Enrichment Failures Several failure patterns can occur during rotifer enrichment: - **Rotifer mortality during enrichment**: Often caused by over-enrichment, poor water quality, or bacterial contamination. Reduce enrichment concentration or duration, improve hygiene protocols, and monitor ammonia levels. - **Incomplete enrichment**: Results in larvae with poor growth or survival. Verify enrichment product quality, check expiration dates, ensure proper mixing and aeration, and confirm enrichment duration is adequate. - **Bacterial blooms**: Excessive bacterial growth can reduce enrichment efficiency and introduce pathogens. Limit enrichment duration, use clean equipment, and consider probiotic enrichment products. - **Oil film formation**: Surface oil films can trap rotifers and reduce oxygen transfer. Use proper emulsification techniques and maintain adequate surface agitation. ## Artemia Enrichment ### Enrichment of Nauplii and Adults Artemia nauplii are enriched after hatching and before feeding to larvae. The enrichment process for nauplii typically lasts 12-24 hours at 25-28°C with densities of 100-300 nauplii/mL. Adult Artemia may be enriched for 24-48 hours at lower densities of 50-100 adults/mL. Enrichment products for Artemia include commercial HUFA emulsions, microalgae such as Isochrysis galbana and Porphyridium cruentum, and probiotic formulations. Research has demonstrated that Porphyridium cruentum-enriched Artemia can enhance survival, growth, and viral resilience in glass eels under endemic Anguillid herpesvirus-1 conditions (Porphyridium cruentum-enriched Artemia enhances survival, growth, and viral resilience of glass eels under endemic Anguillid herpesvirus-1 conditions, Veterinary World, 2026). This highlights the potential for using microalgae enrichment to improve both nutritional status and disease resistance. ### Enrichment Protocol Adjustments Hatchery managers should adjust Artemia enrichment protocols based on: - Larval species requirements for specific fatty acids - Water temperature and its effect on Artemia metabolism - Enrichment product formulation and recommended concentrations - Target enrichment duration to balance nutrient accumulation with Artemia health Artemia should be harvested and rinsed before feeding to larvae to remove enrichment residues and maintain water quality in larval rearing tanks. Cold storage of enriched Artemia at 4-10°C can slow nutrient loss but should not exceed 24 hours. ### Quality Control for Enriched Artemia Quality control measures for enriched Artemia include: - Visual inspection for motility and physical integrity - Microscopic examination for gut fullness and enrichment particle presence - Periodic fatty acid analysis to verify enrichment targets - Monitoring of Artemia survival during enrichment - Testing for bacterial loads if enrichment products contain probiotics Records should include Artemia source, hatching conditions, enrichment product details, enrichment duration, and any observed quality issues. These records support troubleshooting when larval performance problems occur. ## Weaning Strategies for Fish Larvae ### Weaning Timing and Triggers Weaning is the transition from live feeds to formulated microdiets. The timing of weaning depends on larval species, developmental stage, and gut maturation. Most marine fish larvae begin weaning when they reach a specific size or developmental milestone, typically when the stomach is functional and digestive enzyme production has increased. Common triggers for initiating weaning include: - Larval age in days post-hatch - Larval standard length or weight - Observation of feeding behavior on inert particles - Development of a functional stomach - Reduction in live feed acceptance Weaning should be gradual to allow larvae to adapt to the new feed type. Abrupt weaning often results in poor feed acceptance, starvation, and high mortality. ### Co-Feeding Protocols Co-feeding involves providing both live feeds and microdiets simultaneously during the weaning period. This approach allows larvae to continue receiving nutrients from live feeds while learning to accept microdiets. Co-feeding typically lasts 5-14 days, depending on the species and larval growth rate. During co-feeding, the proportion of live feed is gradually reduced while microdiet proportion increases. A typical schedule might involve: - Days 1-3: 75% live feed, 25% microdiet - Days 4-7: 50% live feed, 50% microdiet - Days 8-10: 25% live feed, 75% microdiet - Days 11-14: 100% microdiet This schedule should be adjusted based on larval feeding response, growth rates, and survival. Some species may require longer co-feeding periods, while others can wean more quickly. ### Microdiet Selection Criteria Selecting appropriate microdiets is critical for weaning success. Key criteria include: - **Particle size**: Should match larval mouth gape, typically 50-400 microns for early larvae - **Nutrient profile**: Must meet larval requirements for protein, lipids, HUFA, vitamins, and minerals - **Attractability**: Inclusion of feeding stimulants such as amino acids, betaine, or krill hydrolysate - **Stability**: Low leaching rate of water-soluble nutrients in the water column - **Buoyancy**: Appropriate sinking rate to remain available in the larval feeding zone - **Digestibility**: Ingredients that larvae can digest with their immature digestive systems Microdiets should be tested in small-scale trials before full implementation. Hatchery managers should evaluate multiple products and formulations to identify the best match for their target species and rearing conditions. ## Microdiet Feeding Management ### Feeding Rates and Frequency Microdiet feeding rates during weaning typically range from 1-5% of larval body weight per day, divided into multiple feedings. Frequent feeding, 8-12 times per day, is recommended to maintain feed availability and stimulate feeding behavior. Automatic feeders can deliver microdiets at regular intervals, reducing labor requirements and ensuring consistent feed availability. Feeding rates should be adjusted based on: - Larval density in the rearing tank - Water temperature and larval metabolic rate - Feed acceptance observed during feeding events - Presence of uneaten feed on tank bottoms - Larval gut fullness visible under microscope Overfeeding can deteriorate water quality and increase the risk of bacterial problems. Underfeeding can lead to starvation and cannibalism. ### Feed Presentation and Distribution Microdiets should be distributed evenly across the water surface to ensure all larvae have access to feed. Techniques for feed distribution include: - Manual broadcasting in small amounts at frequent intervals - Automatic feeders with adjustable delivery rates - Feed dispersal using water currents or aeration patterns - Slow-sinking feeds that remain in the water column longer Feed particles should remain suspended in the water column for as long as possible to maximize larval feeding opportunities. Water flow and aeration should be managed to keep particles available without causing excessive turbulence that stresses larvae. ### Monitoring Feed Acceptance Hatchery technicians should monitor microdiet acceptance through: - Observation of feeding behavior during and after feed addition - Examination of larval gut contents under microscope - Measurement of larval growth rates - Tracking of feed conversion ratios - Monitoring of water quality parameters Poor feed acceptance may indicate inappropriate particle size, inadequate attractants, or larval developmental issues. Adjustments to feed type, particle size, or feeding schedule may be necessary. ## Larval Feed Transition Records ### Record Keeping Requirements Accurate records of feed transition protocols support hatchery management decisions and troubleshooting. Essential records include: - Live feed enrichment protocols with product details and concentrations - Enrichment duration and temperature - Rotifer and Artemia density during enrichment - Weaning schedule with dates and feed proportions - Microdiet product names, batch numbers, and particle sizes - Feeding rates and frequency - Larval growth measurements at regular intervals - Survival rates at each developmental stage - Water quality parameters during feed transition These records should be maintained for each production cycle and reviewed regularly to identify trends and areas for improvement. ### Data Analysis for Protocol Optimization Analysis of feed transition records can reveal patterns that inform protocol adjustments. Hatchery managers should examine: - Correlation between enrichment protocols and larval survival - Optimal weaning duration for different species or strains - Relationship between microdiet particle size and larval growth - Impact of feeding frequency on feed conversion - Seasonal variations in feed transition success Regular review of records supports continuous improvement in hatchery performance. When problems occur, historical records provide the basis for identifying root causes and implementing corrective actions. ## Common Failure Patterns in Larval Feed Transition ### Enrichment-Related Failures Failure Pattern | Possible Causes | Corrective Actions ----------------|-----------------|------------------- Poor larval growth despite enrichment | Inadequate HUFA levels, incorrect fatty acid ratios, vitamin deficiencies | Verify enrichment product composition, increase enrichment duration, test alternative products High larval mortality during live feed phase | Bacterial contamination of enrichment, over-enrichment toxicity, poor water quality | Improve hygiene protocols, reduce enrichment concentration, monitor water quality more frequently Variable larval performance between batches | Inconsistent enrichment protocols, product variability, environmental fluctuations | Standardize protocols, use single product batches, control environmental conditions ### Weaning-Related Failures Failure Pattern | Possible Causes | Corrective Actions ----------------|-----------------|------------------- Larvae refuse microdiets | Inappropriate particle size, poor attractability, premature weaning | Reduce particle size, add feeding stimulants, extend co-feeding period Stunted growth during weaning | Inadequate nutrient intake, poor feed digestibility, competition for feed | Increase feeding frequency, improve feed distribution, use more digestible ingredients High mortality during weaning | Starvation, cannibalism, water quality deterioration | Slow weaning rate, maintain live feed longer, improve water quality management ### Microdiet-Related Failures Failure Pattern | Possible Causes | Corrective Actions ----------------|-----------------|------------------- Nutrient leaching from microdiets | Poor feed stability, long residence time in water | Use more stable formulations, increase feeding frequency with smaller amounts Feed aggregation or clumping | High humidity, static electricity, improper storage | Store feed in dry conditions, use anti-caking agents, handle carefully Water quality deterioration | Overfeeding, poor feed stability, inadequate tank cleaning | Reduce feeding rates, improve feed stability, increase water exchange ## Welfare and Safety Considerations ### Larval Welfare During Feed Transition Larval welfare during feed transition depends on adequate nutrition, appropriate environmental conditions, and minimal stress. Poor enrichment or weaning protocols can cause: - Nutritional deficiencies leading to skeletal deformities - Starvation from inadequate feed acceptance - Stress from competition for limited feed resources - Increased disease susceptibility from poor nutritional status Hatchery technicians should monitor larval behavior, feeding response, and physical condition regularly. Any signs of distress, such as reduced feeding activity, abnormal swimming behavior, or physical abnormalities, should prompt immediate investigation and protocol adjustment. ### Worker Safety in Hatchery Operations Worker safety during live feed enrichment and weaning operations involves: - Proper handling of enrichment products, some of which may be irritants - Safe use of automatic feeders and electrical equipment - Prevention of slips and falls on wet surfaces - Proper lifting techniques when moving feed containers - Use of personal protective equipment when handling chemicals Hatchery managers should provide training on safe handling procedures and ensure that safety equipment is available and maintained. ### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Considerations While larval feeds are not directly consumed by humans, [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) considerations apply to hatchery operations that produce fish for human consumption. Key points include: - Use of approved feed ingredients and additives - Prevention of contamination from pathogens or toxins - Maintenance of clean storage conditions for feeds - Documentation of feed sources and handling procedures These practices support the production of healthy larvae that will grow into safe food products. ## Limitations and Professional Escalation ### Limitations of Current Knowledge Several limitations affect the application of live feed enrichment and weaning protocols: - Species-specific requirements are not fully characterized for many cultured species - Interactions between enrichment products and larval microbiota are not well understood - Optimal weaning protocols vary with environmental conditions and hatchery systems - Microdiet formulations continue to evolve, requiring ongoing evaluation Research continues to address these gaps, with studies examining core microbiome profiles and their modification by environmental, biological, and rearing factors in aquaculture hatcheries (Core microbiome profiles and their modification by environmental, biological, and rearing factors in aquaculture hatcheries, Marine Pollution Bulletin, 2023). Understanding these interactions may lead to more targeted enrichment and weaning strategies. ### When to Escalate to Specialists Hatchery managers should seek professional assistance when: - Persistent larval mortality exceeds acceptable thresholds despite protocol adjustments - Nutritional deficiencies or deformities appear at high rates - Disease outbreaks occur during feed transition periods - New species or strains are being cultured for the first time - Significant changes in hatchery systems or water sources are implemented Specialists who can provide assistance include: - Aquaculture nutritionists for feed formulation and enrichment protocol design - Fish health professionals for disease diagnosis and management - Microbiologists for analysis of live feed and larval microbiota - Extension specialists from universities or government agencies The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides aquaculture research and resources that may be relevant to hatchery operations (USDA ARS Aquaculture, www.ars.usda.gov). The FAO also offers information on cultured species and animal production practices (FAO Cultured Species, www.fao.org, FAO Animal Production, www.fao.org). ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the optimal enrichment duration for rotifers? Enrichment duration for rotifers typically ranges from 6 to 24 hours, depending on water temperature and the enrichment product used. Higher temperatures allow shorter enrichment periods, while lower temperatures require longer durations. Hatchery managers should follow product manufacturer recommendations and verify enrichment success through fatty acid analysis or larval performance monitoring. ### How do I know if my Artemia enrichment is working? Effective Artemia enrichment can be assessed by examining nauplii under a microscope for gut fullness with enrichment particles, monitoring larval growth and survival after feeding enriched Artemia, and conducting periodic fatty acid analysis of the enriched Artemia. Consistent larval performance is the most practical indicator of enrichment success. ### When should I start weaning my fish larvae? Weaning should begin when larvae reach a specific developmental stage, typically when they have a functional stomach and can digest formulated feeds. This varies by species but often occurs between 10 and 30 days post-hatch. Observing larvae accepting inert particles during co-feeding trials can help determine the appropriate timing. ### What particle size microdiet should I use for first-feeding larvae? First-feeding larvae typically require microdiet particles between 50 and 150 microns, depending on their mouth gape. Particle size should be increased as larvae grow, with larger particles of 200-400 microns used for older larvae. Matching particle size to larval mouth gape is critical for feed acceptance. ### How long should co-feeding last during weaning? Co-feeding typically lasts 5 to 14 days, but the duration depends on larval species, growth rate, and acceptance of microdiets. Some species may require longer co-feeding periods of 2-3 weeks. The transition should be gradual, with live feed proportion reduced only when larvae are consistently accepting microdiets. ### What causes larvae to refuse microdiets during weaning? Larvae may refuse microdiets due to inappropriate particle size, poor attractability of the feed, premature weaning before digestive system maturation, or stress from environmental conditions. Adjusting particle size, adding feeding stimulants, extending the co-feeding period, or improving water quality can help improve acceptance. ### How can I prevent water quality deterioration during weaning? Water quality deterioration during weaning can be prevented by avoiding overfeeding, using stable microdiets that leach nutrients slowly, increasing water exchange rates, and removing uneaten feed from tank bottoms. Frequent small feedings instead of large infrequent feedings also help maintain water quality. ### What records should I keep for feed transition protocols? Essential records include enrichment product details and concentrations, enrichment duration and temperature, weaning schedules with dates and feed proportions, microdiet product information and particle sizes, feeding rates and frequency, larval growth measurements, survival rates, and water quality parameters. These records support protocol optimization and troubleshooting. ## Related Farming Guides - [Feeding Farmed Fish Efficiently](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/feeding-farmed-fish-efficiently) - [Fish Farming Water Feed Stocking Biosecurity Welfare And Harvest Decisions](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/fish-farming-water-feed-stocking-biosecurity-welfare-and-harvest-decisions) - [Aquaponics Fish Health And System Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/aquaponics-fish-health-and-system-management) - [Freshwater Prawn Farming Stocking Shelter Feeding And Harvest Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/freshwater-prawn-farming-stocking-shelter-feeding-and-harvest-management) - [Aquaculture Solids Management Settling Filtration Sludge And Disposal](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/aquaculture-solids-management-settling-filtration-sludge-and-disposal) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Pond Sediment Management and Dredging Options](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/pond-sediment-management-dredging-options) * [Indoor Aquaculture Facilities: Lighting and Insulation](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/indoor-aquaculture-facilities-lighting-insulation) * [Greenhouse Aquaculture: Extending Growing Seasons](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/greenhouse-aquaculture-extending-growing-seasons) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/culturedspecies) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection/aquaculture) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Enhancement of Live Food Nutritional Status with Essential Nutrients for Improving Aquatic Animal Health: A Review.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33371528). Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2020. - [Mechanistic insights into the early life stage microbiota of silver pompano (Trachinotus blochii).](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38694807). Frontiers in microbiology, 2024. - [The development of new enrichment products and strategies for live feed in fish hatcheries.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25141640). Communications in agricultural and applied biological sciences, 2013. - [Core microbiome profiles and their modification by environmental, biological, and rearing factors in aquaculture hatcheries.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37441915). Marine pollution bulletin, 2023. - [Porphyridium cruentum-enriched Artemia enhances survival, growth, and viral resilience of glass eels (Anguilla bicolor bicolor) under endemic Anguillid herpesvirus-1 conditions.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42245469). Veterinary world, 2026. - [Exploring Isochrysis galbana Biomass Formats: Effects on Live Prey Oxidative Status and Lipid Profiles for Their Potential Use in Aquaculture Larval Nutrition.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40757209). Aquaculture nutrition, 2025. - [A review on the improvement of cladocera (Moina) nutrition as live food for aquaculture: Using valuable plankton fisheries resources](https://doi.org/10.22438/JEB/41/5%28SI%29/MS_16). Journal of Environmental Biology, 2020. - [Boosting hatchery success: effective live feed and microdiet protocols for larval rearing efficiency](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10499-025-02144-z). Aquaculture International, 2025. - [The Importance of Rotifer as Live Feed in Mariculture](https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-97-6699-4_3). Essentials of Aquaculture Practices, 2024. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.