# Crayfish Farming: Pond and Tank Production Systems ## Key Takeaways - **System Choice Dictates Management Intensity:** Pond systems offer lower initial investment and higher volume potential but require extensive land, natural water sources, and are more susceptible to predators and environmental fluctuations. Tank systems, particularly recirculating aquaculture systems (RAS), provide greater control over water quality and higher stocking densities but demand significant capital for equipment (pumps, aeration, filtration) and continuous monitoring of parameters like dissolved oxygen (>5 mg/L), ammonia (<1 mg/L), and nitrite (<0.5 mg/L). - **Water Quality is Paramount and Species-Specific:** Optimal growth for most commercial crayfish species occurs between 20-28°C, with temperatures below 15°C slowing growth and above 32°C causing stress. Maintaining stable pH (6.5-8.5) and adequate dissolved oxygen is critical, especially at higher stocking densities where waste accumulation can rapidly degrade water quality. - **Nutrition and Growth are Intertwined with Environmental Factors:** Crayfish are omnivorous, requiring a balanced diet with 25-35% crude protein, adjusted for life stage. Feeding rates (2-5% of body weight daily) must be carefully managed based on water temperature and observed consumption to prevent overfeeding, which pollutes water and increases disease risk. - **Cannibalism is a Major Mortality Factor Requiring Proactive Management:** Crayfish are prone to cannibalism, particularly during molting. Providing adequate shelter (PVC pipes, aquatic plants), grading by size every 4-6 weeks, and ensuring consistent, accessible feeding are essential strategies to mitigate losses and promote uniform growth. - **Biosecurity and Health Monitoring are Crucial for Disease Prevention:** Implementing strict biosecurity protocols, including quarantining new stock for 2-4 weeks and disinfecting equipment, is more effective than treatment. Regular monitoring for signs of disease (lethargy, discoloration, lesions) and prompt removal of dead or moribund individuals are vital for early detection and intervention. --- This guide covers the practical decisions and management steps for starting and operating a crayfish farm using pond or tank production systems. Prospective and beginning farmers will find information on site selection, system setup, water quality management, feeding, reproduction, and harvest methods. The content draws on published research and official sources to support evidence-based decisions. ## At a Glance | Production Aspect | Pond System | Tank System | Key Consideration | |-------------------|-------------|-------------|-------------------| | Initial investment | Lower per unit area | Higher per unit volume | Tank systems require pumps, aeration, and water treatment equipment | | Stocking density | Lower (1-5 per m² typical) | Higher (10-30 per m² possible) | Density affects growth rate, water quality, and disease risk | | Water exchange | Natural or minimal pumping | Continuous or recirculating | Tank systems need reliable water supply and waste management | | Harvest method | Drain and collect | Net or drain | Pond harvest is labor-intensive, tank harvest is more controlled | | Predator control | Fencing, netting required | Indoor tanks reduce risk | Birds, mammals, and reptiles are common pond predators | | Monitoring difficulty | Visual checks limited | Direct observation easier | Tank systems allow closer inspection of individual animals | ## Site Selection and Environmental Requirements Selecting an appropriate site is the first critical decision for crayfish farming. The location must provide adequate water quantity and quality, suitable soil conditions, and access to infrastructure. ### Water Source and Quality Crayfish require clean water with stable temperature and chemistry. Surface water from streams, rivers, or reservoirs is common for pond systems. Groundwater from wells can be used but may require aeration to raise dissolved oxygen and remove excess carbon dioxide or iron. Municipal water is typically too expensive for commercial production and may contain chlorine or chloramine that harms crayfish. Water quality parameters to assess before construction include temperature range, pH, dissolved oxygen, ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, alkalinity, and hardness. Crayfish are more tolerant of low dissolved oxygen than many fish species, but prolonged hypoxia reduces growth and increases mortality. The FAO provides guidance on water quality for cultured aquatic species through their fisheries and aquaculture resources. ### Soil and Topography Pond construction requires soil with sufficient clay content to hold water. Sandy or gravelly soils leak excessively and require lining or compaction. A soil test should be conducted to determine clay percentage, permeability, and nutrient content. The site should have gentle slopes to allow gravity drainage of ponds. Flat land with a slope of 1-2% is ideal for pond construction. ### Climate Considerations Crayfish are poikilothermic and their growth rate depends directly on water temperature. Optimal growth occurs between 20-28°C for most commercial species. Water temperatures below 15°C slow feeding and growth, while temperatures above 32°C cause stress and can be lethal. Farmers in temperate regions must plan for winter dormancy or indoor overwintering. The USDA Agricultural Research Service conducts research on aquaculture production systems that can inform climate adaptation strategies. ## Pond Production Systems Pond culture is the most common method for crayfish farming worldwide. Earthen ponds can be constructed at relatively low cost and support large production volumes. ### Pond Design and Construction Ponds should be rectangular with a length-to-width ratio of 3:1 to 5:1 to facilitate water circulation and harvest. Water depth should range from 0.5 to 1.5 meters, with deeper areas providing thermal refuge during hot weather. A drain pipe at the lowest point allows complete drainage for harvest and pond maintenance. The pond bottom should slope gently toward the drain. Baffles or internal levees can create water flow patterns that prevent dead zones where waste accumulates. Inlet pipes should be positioned to create circulation without eroding banks. Overflow structures prevent flooding during heavy rain. ### Water Management Ponds are filled before stocking and water is exchanged as needed to maintain quality. Exchange rates of 5-10% per day are common, but the actual rate depends on stocking density, feeding rate, and natural productivity. Aeration may be necessary during warm months when dissolved oxygen drops at night. Paddlewheel aerators or diffused air systems can maintain adequate oxygen levels. Water level should be monitored daily and recorded. Rapid drops indicate leaks that require repair. Excessive algae blooms can cause oxygen crashes when they die and decompose. Farmers should test dissolved oxygen at dawn, when levels are lowest, and adjust aeration accordingly. ### Natural Food Production Ponds can be fertilized to stimulate phytoplankton and zooplankton growth, which provides natural food for crayfish. Organic fertilizers such as manure or inorganic fertilizers like urea and superphosphate are applied at rates based on water temperature and clarity. Over-fertilization causes oxygen depletion and ammonia spikes. A secchi disk reading of 30-40 cm indicates adequate plankton density. Submerged aquatic vegetation provides shelter and additional food. Plants such as elodea, pondweed, and water hyacinth can be established before stocking. Crayfish consume plant material directly and also feed on the invertebrates that live on plants. ### Stocking and Grow-Out Juvenile crayfish are stocked at densities of 1-5 per square meter depending on the target harvest size and production system. Higher densities produce smaller individuals at harvest. Stocking should occur in spring when water temperatures reach 15°C and remain stable. Grow-out periods range from 4 to 8 months depending on temperature and feeding. Crayfish molt periodically to grow, and each molt leaves them vulnerable to cannibalism. Providing adequate shelter in the form of PVC pipes, tiles, or aquatic plants reduces losses. The FAO cultured species database includes information on growth rates and stocking densities for commercially important crayfish species. ## Tank Production Systems Tank systems offer greater control over water quality and environmental conditions. They are suitable for areas with limited land, cold climates requiring indoor production, or farmers who want higher stocking densities. ### Tank Types and Materials Tanks can be constructed from fiberglass, polyethylene, concrete, or lined metal. Round or square tanks with rounded corners are preferred because they allow uniform water circulation and waste removal. Tank size ranges from 1,000 to 50,000 liters for commercial production. Each tank should have a central drain connected to a standpipe that controls water level. Inlet water enters at the tank wall to create circular flow that carries waste to the center drain. Aeration is provided by air stones, diffusers, or venturi injectors. ### Recirculating Aquaculture Systems Recirculating systems reuse water after treatment, reducing water consumption and allowing temperature control. The treatment train typically includes mechanical filtration to remove solids, biological filtration to convert ammonia to nitrate, and aeration to maintain dissolved oxygen. A pump moves water from the tank through the treatment components and back. Biofilters contain media that support nitrifying bacteria. These bacteria convert toxic ammonia from crayfish waste into less toxic nitrate. The biofilter must be mature before stocking, which takes 4-6 weeks. Ammonia and nitrite levels should be tested weekly during system startup and daily after stocking. ### Water Quality Monitoring Tank systems require frequent water quality testing because waste accumulates rapidly at high stocking densities. Key parameters and their target ranges include: - Dissolved oxygen: above 5 mg/L - Temperature: 20-28°C depending on species - pH: 6.5-8.5 - Total ammonia nitrogen: below 1 mg/L - Nitrite: below 0.5 mg/L - Nitrate: below 100 mg/L Test kits or electronic meters should be used daily. Sudden changes in any parameter indicate a system malfunction or overfeeding. Records of all water quality measurements allow trend analysis and early detection of problems. ### Stocking Density and Growth Tank systems can support 10-30 crayfish per square meter of bottom area, depending on water exchange rate and biofilter capacity. Higher densities require more intensive management and increase the risk of disease outbreaks. Growth rates in tanks are often faster than in ponds because temperature can be optimized and feeding is more controlled. Crayfish should be graded by size every 4-6 weeks to reduce cannibalism and ensure uniform growth. Grading involves separating animals by size using a grader or by hand. Smaller individuals are returned to the tank, while larger ones are moved to a separate tank or prepared for harvest. ## Feeding and Nutrition Crayfish are omnivorous and consume plant material, detritus, invertebrates, and prepared feeds. A balanced diet is essential for growth, reproduction, and health. ### Feed Types Commercial crayfish feeds are available as sinking pellets with 25-35% crude protein. The protein level depends on the life stage, with juveniles requiring higher protein than adults. Feeds should contain adequate levels of essential amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Natural foods in ponds include algae, aquatic plants, insect larvae, worms, and snails. These can supplement prepared feeds and reduce feed costs. However, relying solely on natural production limits stocking density and growth rate. ### Feeding Rate and Frequency Feed is offered at 2-5% of body weight per day, adjusted based on water temperature and observed consumption. Crayfish feed actively at temperatures above 15°C. Below this temperature, feeding should be reduced or stopped because digestion slows and uneaten feed pollutes the water. Feed should be distributed evenly across the pond or tank to reduce competition and ensure all animals have access. Feeding once or twice daily is typical. Observing feed consumption at each feeding allows adjustment of the ration. Uneaten feed after 2 hours indicates overfeeding. ### Feed Management Records Farmers should record the following for each pond or tank: - Date and time of feeding - Feed type and amount - Estimated number and size of crayfish - Water temperature at feeding time - Observed feeding activity (active, moderate, slow) - Estimated amount of uneaten feed These records help calculate [feed conversion ratio](/knowledge/animal-farming/poultry/feed-conversion-ratio-measuring-improving-poultry-efficiency), which is the weight of feed required to produce one unit of crayfish weight. A [feed conversion ratio](/knowledge/animal-farming/poultry/feed-conversion-ratio-measuring-improving-poultry-efficiency) of 1.5-2.5 is typical for well-managed systems. ## Reproduction and Hatchery Management Controlled reproduction allows farmers to produce their own seed stock and select for desirable traits. Understanding the reproductive cycle is essential for hatchery success. ### Broodstock Selection Broodstock should be selected from healthy, fast-growing individuals with no deformities or signs of disease. Females are typically larger than males and have a broader abdomen. Males have larger chelae and a narrower abdomen. The sex ratio for breeding is usually 1 male to 2-3 females. Broodstock are conditioned in separate ponds or tanks with high-quality feed and optimal water temperature. Conditioning takes 4-8 weeks before spawning. Females carry eggs under their abdomen after mating and the eggs hatch in 3-6 weeks depending on temperature. ### Egg Incubation and Hatching Females with eggs should be moved to hatching tanks or cages to protect the eggs from predation and cannibalism. Water temperature should be maintained at 20-24°C for optimal development. Eggs change color from dark green to orange as they develop, and finally to gray just before hatching. Hatching occurs over several days. The newly hatched juveniles remain attached to the female for 1-2 weeks before becoming free-swimming. At this stage, they can be moved to nursery tanks or ponds. ### Nursery Phase Juvenile crayfish are raised in nursery systems for 4-8 weeks before stocking into grow-out ponds or tanks. Nursery tanks should have abundant shelter and fine mesh screens to prevent escape. Feeding with finely ground feed or live food such as brine shrimp nauplii supports rapid growth. Survival in the nursery phase is typically 50-70% under good management. Cannibalism is the main cause of mortality, so providing adequate shelter and grading by size is critical. The FAO animal production resources include information on hatchery management for crustacean species. ## Health Management and Biosecurity Disease prevention is more effective than treatment in crayfish farming. Biosecurity measures reduce the introduction and spread of pathogens. ### Common Health Issues Crayfish are susceptible to bacterial infections, fungal diseases, and parasitic infestations. Poor water quality, overcrowding, and nutritional deficiencies increase disease susceptibility. Signs of disease include lethargy, loss of appetite, discoloration, lesions on the exoskeleton, and abnormal behavior. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare that apply to aquaculture species. Farmers should familiarize themselves with common diseases in their region and establish relationships with aquatic veterinarians. ### Biosecurity Protocols Biosecurity measures include: - Quarantining new stock for 2-4 weeks before introduction - Disinfecting equipment between ponds or tanks - Restricting visitor access to production areas - Using dedicated footwear and clothing for each production unit - Treating incoming water if sourced from areas with known pathogens Dead or moribund crayfish should be removed daily and disposed of away from production areas. Mortality records help detect disease outbreaks early. A sudden increase in daily mortality warrants investigation and possible veterinary consultation. ### Probiotics and Gut Health Research on probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics in crayfish aquaculture has examined their effects on gut microbiota and overall health. These additives may improve feed conversion, growth, and disease resistance. Farmers considering probiotic use should select products with documented efficacy for crayfish and follow manufacturer recommendations for application rates and frequency. ## Harvest and Post-Harvest Handling Harvest timing and methods affect product quality and market value. Proper handling after harvest maintains freshness and extends shelf life. ### Harvest Methods Ponds are harvested by draining water through a screen or net that captures crayfish. The drain should be opened gradually to allow crayfish to move toward the outlet. Harvesting at night or early morning when water is cooler reduces stress. Tank harvest is simpler because water can be drained quickly and crayfish collected from the tank bottom. A net or basket can also be used to remove crayfish without draining the entire tank. ### Grading and Sorting Harvested crayfish should be graded by size using mechanical graders or manual sorting. Market preferences vary by region, but common size grades include small (under 30 grams), medium (30-50 grams), and large (over 50 grams). Undersized crayfish are returned to the production system for further growth. Damaged or dead crayfish are removed during grading. Soft-shelled crayfish that have recently molted are separated because they are more vulnerable to injury and have lower market value in some markets. ### Holding and Transport Crayfish can be held in clean water with aeration for 24-48 hours before sale. Holding tanks should have low stocking density and frequent water exchange to maintain quality. Crayfish should not be fed during holding because feeding increases waste production and reduces water quality. Transport is done in insulated containers with moist air or shallow water. Crayfish are packed in layers separated by wet burlap or foam. Temperature during transport should be maintained at 10-15°C to reduce metabolism and stress. Transport time should be minimized to prevent mortality. ## Records and Measurements Systematic record keeping allows farmers to track performance, identify problems, and make informed management decisions. ### Production Records Essential production records include: - Stocking date, source, number, and average weight - Daily feed type and amount - Weekly water quality measurements - Mortality counts and causes - Growth samples (weight and length) taken monthly - Harvest date, number, and total weight These records allow calculation of key performance indicators such as survival rate, growth rate, feed conversion ratio, and yield per unit area or volume. ### Financial Records Financial records track income and expenses for each production cycle. Costs include pond or tank construction, equipment, feed, stock, labor, utilities, and marketing. Income comes from sales of live crayfish, processed products, or breeding stock. Profitability analysis requires accurate records of all costs and revenues. Farmers should maintain separate accounts for each pond or tank to identify which production units are most efficient. ### Water Quality Logs A water quality log should record date, time, temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate for each pond or tank. Observations of water color, clarity, and odor should also be noted. These logs help identify trends and detect problems before they become severe. ## Common Failure Patterns Understanding common mistakes helps farmers avoid costly errors. ### Overstocking Stocking too many crayfish per unit area leads to slow growth, high mortality, and poor feed conversion. Overstocked systems have poor water quality and increased disease risk. Farmers should follow recommended stocking densities for their system type and species. ### Poor Water Quality Management Inadequate aeration, infrequent water exchange, or overfeeding causes water quality deterioration. Ammonia and nitrite buildup stresses crayfish and reduces growth. Regular testing and prompt corrective action prevent losses. ### Inadequate Shelter Crayfish need shelter to hide during molting and to escape cannibalism. Ponds or tanks without sufficient cover have high mortality, especially during molting periods. Providing artificial shelters or aquatic plants reduces losses. ### Disease Introduction Introducing new stock without quarantine brings pathogens into the production system. Quarantine for 2-4 weeks with observation for signs of disease prevents outbreaks. Farmers should source stock from reputable suppliers with documented health status. ### Poor Harvest Planning Harvesting during hot weather or without adequate preparation causes stress and mortality. Draining ponds too quickly leaves crayfish stranded and vulnerable to predators. Planning harvest for cooler times and having all equipment ready reduces losses. ## Welfare and Safety Context Animal welfare and worker safety are important considerations in crayfish farming. ### Crayfish Welfare Crayfish experience stress from poor water quality, handling, and transport. Minimizing stress improves growth, survival, and product quality. Welfare considerations include: - Maintaining optimal water quality parameters - Providing adequate shelter and space - Handling crayfish gently and minimizing air exposure - Using humane slaughter methods The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare that apply to aquaculture species. Farmers should stay informed about welfare standards and best practices. ### Worker Safety Crayfish farming involves physical labor, water hazards, and equipment operation. Safety measures include: - Wearing appropriate footwear with non-slip soles - Using life jackets when working near deep water - Following lockout/tagout procedures for electrical equipment - Lifting heavy loads with proper technique or mechanical aids - Having first aid kits and emergency contact information available Workers should be trained in safe handling of crayfish to avoid injury from claws. Gloves protect hands during grading and sorting. ### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Crayfish for human consumption must be produced under conditions that prevent contamination. Clean water sources, proper handling, and cold storage maintain product quality. Farmers should follow [food safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) regulations for their region and consider implementing Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) plans. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Some situations require consultation with experts beyond the farm. Farmers should seek professional help when: - Mortality exceeds 5% per week with no obvious cause - Water quality parameters remain outside target ranges despite corrective actions - Crayfish show unusual behavior or lesions that suggest disease - Equipment failures cannot be repaired with on-farm resources - Regulatory requirements change or compliance is uncertain Aquatic veterinarians, extension specialists, and aquaculture consultants can provide diagnosis and treatment recommendations. The FAO and USDA offer technical resources and can connect farmers with local experts. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the best crayfish species for farming? The best species depends on your climate, market, and production system. Red swamp crayfish and signal crayfish are common in temperate regions. Australian red-claw crayfish are grown in warmer areas. Research local market preferences and consult with extension services before selecting a species. ### How much does it cost to start a crayfish farm? Startup costs vary widely based on scale and system type. Pond systems require land excavation, water supply, and fencing. Tank systems need tanks, pumps, filtration, and climate control. A detailed business plan with cost estimates for your specific site is essential before investing. ### How long does it take to grow crayfish to harvest size? Grow-out time ranges from 4 to 8 months depending on species, temperature, and feeding. Warmer water and optimal nutrition produce faster growth. Some farmers achieve two harvests per year in tropical or heated systems. ### Can crayfish be farmed indoors? Yes, indoor tank systems with temperature control and recirculating water allow year-round production. Indoor farming requires higher investment in equipment and energy but offers greater control over environmental conditions and reduced predation risk. ### What do crayfish eat in captivity? Crayfish eat commercial sinking pellets, plant material, and natural foods such as algae and invertebrates. A balanced diet with adequate protein is essential for growth. Feeding rates should be adjusted based on water temperature and observed consumption. ### How do I prevent cannibalism in crayfish? Provide adequate shelter such as PVC pipes, tiles, or aquatic plants. Grade crayfish by size regularly to reduce size variation. Maintain optimal stocking density and ensure consistent feeding to reduce aggression. ### What water quality parameters are critical for crayfish? Dissolved oxygen above 5 mg/L, temperature 20-28°C, pH 6.5-8.5, and low ammonia and nitrite are critical. Regular testing and record keeping help maintain optimal conditions. Sudden changes in any parameter stress crayfish and increase disease risk. ### How do I harvest crayfish from a pond? Drain the pond gradually through a screen or net that captures crayfish. Harvest at night or early morning when water is cooler. Collect crayfish promptly and move them to holding tanks with clean, aerated water. ## Related Farming Guides - [Aquaculture Water Quality Monitoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/aquaculture-water-quality-monitoring) - [Recirculating Aquaculture System Basics](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/recirculating-aquaculture-system-basics) - [Lentivirus Production](/blog/guides/plaque-assays-planning-controls-and-reporting-viral-titer) - [Systems Biology](/blog/news/systems-biology) - [Fish Farming Water Feed Stocking Biosecurity Welfare And Harvest Decisions](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/fish-farming-water-feed-stocking-biosecurity-welfare-and-harvest-decisions) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Pond Sediment Management and Dredging Options](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/pond-sediment-management-dredging-options) * [Indoor Aquaculture Facilities: Lighting and Insulation](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/indoor-aquaculture-facilities-lighting-insulation) * [Greenhouse Aquaculture: Extending Growing Seasons](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/greenhouse-aquaculture-extending-growing-seasons) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/fishery/en/culturedspecies) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection/aquaculture) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Farming of Indigenous Crayfish in Russia: A Mini-Review of Recent Studies.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39858223). Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2025. - [Is rice-crayfish co-culture a better aquaculture model: From the perspective of antibiotic resistome profiles.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34740740). Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987), 2022. - [Probiotics, Prebiotics, and Synbiotics Utilization in Crayfish Aquaculture and Factors Affecting Gut Microbiota.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37317206). Microorganisms, 2023. - [Rice-crayfish farming system promote subsoil microbial residual carbon accumulation and stabilization by mediating microbial metabolism process.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38925393). The Science of the total environment, 2024. - [Editorial introduction to the special issue: Aqua species immunity.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29248152). Developmental and comparative immunology, 2018. - [Crayfish Research: A Global Scientometric Analysis Using CiteSpace.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37048496). Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 2023. - [Soil quality indicators of integrated rice-crayfish farming in the Jianghan Plain, China using a minimum data set](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2020.104732). Soil and Tillage Research, 2020. - [Cultivation of the Australian red-clawed crayfish, Cherax quadricarinatus as a new aquaculture facility in the industrial conditions of fish farms in Uzbekistan](https://doi.org/10.22124/cjes.2025.8756). Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2025. - [Patterns of Sediment Fungal Community Dependent on Farming Practices in Aquaculture Ponds](https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2021.542064). Frontiers in Microbiology, 2021. - [Smart Aquaculture: Integrating Computer Vision and IoT for Automated Crayfish Health Assessment via Federated Learning](https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2025.3624140). IEEE Access, 2025. - [Evaluation of the trophic structure and energy flow of a rice-crayfish integrated farming ecosystem based on the Ecopath model](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2021.736626). Aquaculture, 2021. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.