# Pollination Service Business: Contracting, Colony Strength, and Logistics ## Key Takeaways - **Contractual Rigor is Paramount:** Pollination service contracts must explicitly define colony count, minimum strength metrics (e.g., frames of brood and adult bees), precise placement and removal dates, and detailed payment schedules. This mitigates disputes and provides legal recourse for crop damage or colony loss, with essential clauses addressing pesticide exposure, vandalism, and insurance. - **Colony Strength Dictates Efficacy:** Minimum colony strength, typically assessed by frames of brood (e.g., 4-6 frames) and adult bees (e.g., 8-10 frames for almonds), is critical for effective pollination. Beekeepers must verify and maintain this strength throughout the rental period, as weak colonies result in reduced foraging and poor fruit set. - **Logistical Precision Ensures Colony Viability:** Transportation logistics require careful planning, including appropriate vehicle type (e.g., flatbed trucks with side racks), controlled loading density (e.g., 15 cm spacing between pallets), adequate ventilation, and minimized travel times to prevent colony stress, queen loss, and reduced foraging performance. - **Proactive Health Monitoring is Essential:** Weekly health assessments during pollination contracts, including evaluation of queen performance, varroa mite levels (e.g., alcohol wash counts >3/100 bees requiring treatment), nosema spore counts, and nutritional stores, are crucial. Prompt intervention, such as colony replacement or supplemental feeding, is necessary to maintain pollination efficacy and prevent losses. - **Environmental and Safety Protocols Mitigate Risk:** Hive placement should optimize foraging efficiency (e.g., groups of 4-8 colonies spaced <200m apart, entrances oriented away from prevailing winds) and consider environmental factors like temperature and wind. Worker safety necessitates protective gear and proper handling techniques to manage sting risks and physical strain. --- Commercial beekeepers considering pollination services as a revenue stream must understand that this business requires precise contract terms, verifiable colony strength standards, and reliable transportation logistics. This article provides guidance on negotiating pollination contracts, assessing colony strength for crop pollination, managing hive placement, and coordinating bee pollination logistics. The content is intended for beekeepers who already manage multiple colonies and are evaluating pollination fees and service agreements as a primary or supplementary income source. ## At a Glance: Pollination Service Business Overview | Business Component | Key Consideration | Practical Implication | | --- | --- | --- | | Contract negotiation | Written agreement specifying colony count, strength metrics, placement dates, and payment terms | Reduces disputes and provides legal recourse if crop damage or colony loss occurs | | Colony strength assessment | Minimum frames of brood and adult bees per hive, verified before placement | Determines pollination fee and ensures grower receives adequate pollination | | Transportation logistics | Vehicle type, loading density, travel time, and ventilation during transit | Affects colony survival and stress levels, directly impacting pollination performance | | Hive placement | Spacing, orientation, and distribution across the crop field | Influences foraging efficiency and uniformity of pollination | | Payment and liability | Deposit schedule, damage clauses, and insurance requirements | Protects beekeeper income and covers colony replacement costs | ## Understanding the Pollination Service Market Pollination services represent a distinct revenue stream for commercial beekeepers, separate from honey production or queen rearing. Growers of almonds, apples, blueberries, cherries, melons, and other crops contract beekeepers to place colonies during bloom periods. The FAO notes that pollination is essential for many crops, and managed pollinators provide this service (www.fao.org/pollination/en). Beekeepers must recognize that pollination contracts differ from honey production agreements. The primary product is pollination, not honey, and colony management decisions must prioritize foraging activity and colony strength over honey storage. The market for pollination services varies by region and crop. Almond pollination in California commands the highest fees, while smaller fruit and vegetable crops may offer lower per-colony payments. Beekeepers should research local crop bloom calendars and grower demand before investing in specialized equipment. The FAO Animal Production and Health division provides resources on livestock and pollinator management that can inform business planning (www.fao.org/animal-production/en). ## Pollination Contract Terms and Negotiation A written pollination contract protects both the beekeeper and the grower. Oral agreements lead to disputes over colony condition, placement timing, and payment. The contract should specify the number of colonies, minimum colony strength, placement dates, removal dates, and payment schedule. Include clauses for pesticide exposure, colony damage, and access for inspection. ### Essential Contract Clauses Colony count and strength requirements form the core of the contract. Define minimum frames of bees and brood per colony. Specify that the beekeeper will replace any colony that falls below the agreed strength during the rental period. Include a provision for the grower to inspect colonies before placement and at agreed intervals during bloom. Payment terms should include a deposit upon signing, a second payment at placement, and final payment after removal. Some contracts include a performance bonus if fruit set exceeds a threshold. Liability clauses must address pesticide drift, vandalism, theft, and natural disasters. The beekeeper should carry liability insurance and require the grower to notify the beekeeper before any pesticide application. ### Negotiation Strategies Beekeepers should know their costs before negotiating fees. Calculate per-colony costs for transportation, labor, feeding, and colony replacement. Research local pollination fees through beekeeper associations or extension services. Do not accept a contract that requires colonies to remain in the field after bloom ends without additional payment. Negotiate a clause that allows the beekeeper to remove colonies if the grower applies pesticides during bloom without notice. ## Colony Strength Standards for Crop Pollination Colony strength directly affects pollination effectiveness. A weak colony forages less, visits fewer flowers, and produces less fruit set. Growers expect colonies with a minimum number of frames of bees and brood. Beekeepers must assess colony strength before committing to a contract and maintain that strength throughout the rental period. ### Measuring Colony Strength Standard colony strength metrics include frames of adult bees, frames of brood, and the presence of a laying queen. A typical almond pollination contract requires eight to ten frames of bees and four to six frames of brood per colony. For smaller crops like blueberries or apples, requirements may be lower. Beekeepers should use a standardized assessment method and record results for each colony. The assessment should occur one to two weeks before placement. Count frames covered with adult bees on both sides. Count frames containing capped brood, eggs, and larvae. Note the queen's presence and laying pattern. Colonies with a failing queen or spotty brood pattern may not meet contract requirements and should be replaced or requeened before placement. ### Maintaining Colony Strength During Bloom Colonies placed in pollination fields face nutritional stress because they forage on a single crop. Pollen from almonds or apples may lack essential amino acids. Beekeepers should provide supplemental pollen patties and sugar syrup if natural forage is insufficient. Monitor colony weight and brood production weekly. If a colony weakens, replace it with a strong colony from the apiary. Disease and pest pressure can reduce colony strength during bloom. Varroa mite infestations, nosema, and viral infections impair foraging behavior and brood production. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare that include [honey bee disease management](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/honey-bee-disease-management-diagnosis-treatment-and-biosecurity) (www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). Beekeepers should treat for varroa before placement and monitor for disease symptoms during the rental period. ## Hive Placement and Distribution in Crop Fields Proper hive placement maximizes pollination efficiency. Hives should be distributed evenly across the field to ensure all plants receive adequate bee visits. Centralized placement forces bees to fly longer distances, reducing foraging efficiency and fruit set uniformity. ### Placement Guidelines Place hives in groups of four to eight colonies. Space groups evenly throughout the field, with a maximum distance of 200 meters between groups. Orient hive entrances away from prevailing winds and toward the crop. Provide a clean water source within 50 meters of each group. Avoid placing hives near roads, irrigation ditches, or areas where pesticides may drift. For large fields, use multiple drop sites. A 100-acre almond orchard may require 20 to 30 drop sites with two to four colonies each. The beekeeper must coordinate with the grower to identify accessible locations that do not interfere with irrigation or farm equipment. Mark each drop site with a flag or GPS coordinate for easy relocation. ### Environmental Considerations Temperature, wind, and rain affect bee foraging activity. Hives placed in shaded areas may have delayed morning foraging. Hives placed in low-lying areas may experience frost damage. Beekeepers should monitor weather forecasts and adjust placement if necessary. If a cold snap reduces foraging, the beekeeper may need to extend the rental period to ensure adequate pollination. ## Transportation Logistics for Pollination Services Transporting colonies to and from pollination sites requires careful planning. Poor transportation practices cause colony stress, queen loss, and reduced foraging performance. Beekeepers must consider vehicle type, loading density, ventilation, and travel time. ### Vehicle and Equipment Requirements Flatbed trucks with side racks are standard for transporting palletized colonies. Each pallet holds four to six colonies. Secure pallets with straps or chains to prevent shifting during transit. The vehicle must have adequate ventilation, either through open sides or screened panels. In hot weather, use a misting system or wet burlap to cool colonies. Loading density affects colony survival. Overcrowding reduces ventilation and increases temperature inside the load. Leave at least 15 centimeters of space between pallets for air circulation. Do not stack pallets more than two high unless the vehicle has reinforced racks and adequate ventilation. ### Travel Time and Route Planning Long travel times stress colonies. Plan routes that minimize transit time and avoid rough roads. If travel exceeds four hours, schedule a rest stop to allow colonies to settle. For overnight trips, park the vehicle in a shaded, ventilated area. Do not leave colonies in a closed trailer or truck bed without ventilation. Beekeepers should inspect colonies immediately after arrival. Check for queen loss, dead bees, and damaged equipment. Replace any colonies that show signs of stress or queen failure. Record the condition of each colony upon arrival and report any issues to the grower. ## Records and Measurements for Pollination Contracts Accurate records protect the beekeeper in disputes and inform future business decisions. Maintain records for each contract, including colony counts, strength assessments, placement dates, and payment receipts. Use a standardized form or digital app to record data. ### Required Records For each pollination contract, record the grower name, crop type, field location, and contract terms. Document the date and results of each colony strength assessment. Note the number of frames of bees and brood for each colony. Record the date and time of placement and removal. Keep copies of signed contracts, payment receipts, and correspondence with the grower. Photographs provide visual evidence of colony condition and placement. Take photos of each drop site showing hive orientation and spacing. Photograph any damage to colonies or equipment. If pesticide exposure occurs, photograph the affected colonies and collect samples for testing. ### Using Records for Business Improvement Analyze records after each season to identify patterns. Compare pollination fees to costs for each crop and location. Identify growers who pay on time and those who cause problems. Evaluate colony survival rates and queen replacement costs. Use this data to adjust fees, contract terms, and colony management practices. ## Common Failure Patterns in Pollination Services Beekeepers entering the pollination service business should anticipate common problems. Understanding these failure patterns helps prevent losses and maintain grower relationships. ### Colony Strength Disputes Disagreements over colony strength are the most common source of conflict. Growers may claim colonies are weak, while beekeepers believe they meet contract requirements. To avoid disputes, conduct a joint inspection with the grower before placement. Use a standardized assessment method and document the results. If the grower rejects a colony, replace it immediately. ### Pesticide Exposure Pesticide drift kills bees and contaminates colonies. Even low-level exposure can impair foraging behavior and reduce pollination effectiveness. Beekeepers should require growers to notify them before any pesticide application. If exposure occurs, document the damage and file a claim with the grower's insurance. The contract should specify compensation for colony loss and reduced pollination fees. ### Transportation Losses Colonies transported long distances may arrive weak or queenless. Poor ventilation, high temperatures, and rough roads contribute to losses. Beekeepers should inspect colonies before loading and after arrival. Replace any colonies that do not meet strength standards. Consider using climate-controlled vehicles for long-distance transport. ### Payment Delays Some growers delay payment or dispute fees after pollination. The contract should specify payment due dates and late fees. Send invoices promptly after colony removal. If payment is not received, follow up with a written notice. For persistent nonpayment, consult an attorney or use a collection service. ## Welfare and Safety Context for Pollination Services Honey bee welfare and worker safety are important considerations in pollination services. Stressed colonies are less effective pollinators and more susceptible to disease. Workers handling colonies face sting risks and physical strain. ### Honey Bee Welfare Colonies used for pollination services experience stress from transportation, confinement, and nutritional limitations. Beekeepers should minimize stress by providing adequate ventilation, water, and supplemental feed. Avoid moving colonies during extreme heat or cold. Allow colonies to rest for 24 hours after transport before expecting full foraging activity. Disease management is critical for colony welfare. The investigation of viral and parasitic pathogens in Bombus terrestris populations highlights the importance of pathogen monitoring in managed pollinators (PubMed, 2026). While this study focuses on bumble bees, the principles apply to honey bees. Beekeepers should monitor for varroa mites, nosema, and viral infections before and after pollination contracts. Treat colonies as needed to maintain health. ### Worker Safety Beekeepers and their employees face sting risks during loading, unloading, and colony inspection. Wear protective clothing, including a veil, gloves, and a bee suit. Use a smoker to calm colonies before handling. Train employees in safe handling techniques and emergency procedures for allergic reactions. Physical strain from lifting heavy hives and pallets causes injuries. Use mechanical lifts or pallet jacks to move colonies. Limit the weight of individual hive components. Rotate tasks among workers to reduce repetitive strain. Provide first aid kits and ensure workers know how to treat stings and allergic reactions. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Beekeepers should know when to seek professional help. Escalate issues to an attorney, accountant, or [beekeeping](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/beekeeping-colony-nutrition-seasonal-management-parasite-monitoring-and-honey-harvest) association when disputes cannot be resolved internally. ### Legal Escalation Consult an attorney if a grower refuses to pay, violates contract terms, or causes colony damage. An attorney can review contracts, send demand letters, and file lawsuits if necessary. Beekeepers should have a lawyer familiar with agricultural contracts and pollination services. ### Financial Escalation Work with an accountant to track pollination service income and expenses. An accountant can help with tax planning, depreciation of equipment, and business structure decisions. If payment disputes affect cash flow, consult a financial advisor or lender for short-term financing. ### Industry Escalation Contact a beekeeping association or extension service for mediation if a dispute cannot be resolved. Industry organizations may offer dispute resolution services or provide expert witnesses for legal cases. The evaluation of sustainability of the beekeeping sector in the North West Region of Romania demonstrates the importance of industry support for beekeeping businesses (Elsevier, 2012). While this study is regional, the principle applies globally. ## Colony Health Monitoring and Intervention Protocols During Pollination Contracts Colony health monitoring during pollination contracts requires a systematic approach that goes beyond pre-placement strength assessments. Beekeepers who implement regular health checks during the rental period reduce the risk of colony failure, improve pollination performance, and strengthen grower relationships. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare that include [honey bee disease management](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/honey-bee-disease-management-diagnosis-treatment-and-biosecurity) protocols (www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). This section outlines a practical health monitoring framework, intervention decision criteria, and documentation methods specific to pollination service contracts. ### Weekly Health Assessment Protocol Establish a fixed schedule for colony inspections during the pollination period. Inspect each colony at least once per week, preferably on the same day and time to maintain consistency. Use a standardized assessment form that records the following metrics for each colony: frames of adult bees, frames of brood, queen status, food stores, and signs of disease or pest infestation. The investigation of viral and parasitic pathogens in Bombus terrestris populations demonstrates the importance of pathogen monitoring in managed pollinators (PubMed, 2026). While this study focuses on bumble bees, the principles of regular pathogen surveillance apply directly to honey bee colonies under pollination contracts. Record the ambient temperature and time of day for each inspection. Foraging activity varies with weather conditions, and colonies may appear weaker during cool or windy periods. Compare inspection results to the baseline assessment conducted before placement. A colony that has lost more than two frames of adult bees or one frame of brood since placement requires immediate attention. ### Queen Performance Evaluation Queen quality directly affects colony strength and foraging activity during pollination. Evaluate queen performance at each weekly inspection. Look for a consistent laying pattern with compact brood in the center of the frame. Spotty brood, drone-laying workers, or the presence of queen cells indicate queen failure. A colony with a failing queen will not maintain the strength required for effective pollination. If queen failure is detected, the beekeeper must decide whether to requeen immediately or replace the entire colony. Requeening during a pollination contract is risky because the new queen may not be accepted, and the colony will experience a brood break that reduces foraging activity for two to three weeks. In most cases, replacing the entire colony with a strong backup colony is the better option. Maintain a reserve of at least 10 percent of the contracted colony count as replacements. ### Disease and Pest Monitoring Varroa mite infestations increase during pollination contracts because colonies are concentrated in crop fields and may drift between hives. Monitor varroa levels using an alcohol wash or powdered sugar shake method at the beginning, middle, and end of the rental period. A mite count exceeding three mites per 100 bees requires treatment. Choose treatments that are approved for use during bloom and that do not contaminate pollen or nectar. The FAO Animal Production and Health division provides resources on livestock and pollinator management that can inform treatment decisions (www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Nosema infection reduces foraging activity and shortens worker lifespan. Collect a sample of 30 to 60 bees from the hive entrance and examine for nosema spores using a microscope. If spore counts exceed one million per bee, consider treatment with fumagillin or other approved medications. Note that some treatments require a withdrawal period before honey collection, which may affect post-pollination plans. American foulbrood and European foulbrood require immediate action. If you suspect either disease, contact your state apiarist or extension service for confirmation. Infected colonies must be destroyed or treated according to regulatory requirements. Do not move infected colonies to other locations, as this spreads the disease to other beekeeping operations. ### Nutritional Stress Intervention Colonies foraging on a single crop face nutritional deficiencies because the pollen from that crop may lack essential amino acids. Almond pollen, for example, is low in certain amino acids that bees need for brood production. Monitor colony weight and food stores at each inspection. A colony that has consumed more than half of its stored honey and pollen within the first two weeks of placement is at risk of nutritional stress. Provide supplemental pollen patties and sugar syrup when natural forage is insufficient. Place pollen patties directly on the top bars of the brood chamber. Use a feeder with a capacity of at least one gallon for sugar syrup. A 1:1 sugar-to-water ratio by weight provides energy for foraging activity, while a 2:1 ratio supports food storage. Replace pollen patties weekly and refill syrup feeders as needed. ### Intervention Decision Framework Use the following decision framework to determine when to intervene during a pollination contract: | Colony Condition | Action Required | Timeline | | --- | --- | --- | | Loss of two or more frames of adult bees | Replace colony with strong backup | Within 24 hours | | Queen failure or spotty brood pattern | Replace colony or requeen | Within 48 hours | | Varroa mite count above three per 100 bees | Apply approved treatment | Within 72 hours | | Nosema spore count above one million per bee | Apply approved treatment | Within 72 hours | | Food stores below two frames of honey | Provide supplemental feed | Immediately | | Signs of American or European foulbrood | Contact regulatory authority | Immediately | Document each intervention with the date, colony identification, action taken, and outcome. Share intervention records with the grower if the contract requires transparency. The evaluation of sustainability of the beekeeping sector in the North West Region of Romania highlights the importance of record keeping for business management (Elsevier, 2012). While this study is regional, the principle of maintaining detailed records applies to all pollination service operations. ### Common Failure Patterns in Health Monitoring Beekeepers who do not implement a structured health monitoring program face several predictable problems. The most common failure is delayed detection of queen failure. A colony may appear strong during the first week of placement but decline rapidly in the second week if the queen stops laying. By the time the beekeeper notices the decline, the colony may have lost half its foraging force. Another common failure is treating varroa mites too late. Mite populations can double every three weeks during warm weather. A colony that enters a pollination contract with a moderate mite load may reach damaging levels within the rental period. Beekeepers should treat for varroa before placement, not after problems appear. Nutritional stress is often overlooked because beekeepers assume that colonies in bloom have adequate food. However, colonies foraging on a single crop may consume their stored honey and pollen within the first week. Without supplemental feed, brood production stops, and the colony weakens. Monitor food stores at every inspection and provide supplemental feed before stores are depleted. ### Professional Escalation Criteria for Health Issues Beekeepers should know when to seek professional help for colony health problems. Escalate to a veterinarian, extension specialist, or state apiarist when: - Disease symptoms are unfamiliar or difficult to diagnose - Treatment options are unclear or require regulatory approval - Colony losses exceed 10 percent of the contracted count - Multiple colonies show the same unexplained symptoms - The grower reports unusual bee mortality or reduced foraging activity Contact your state apiarist or extension service for guidance on disease identification and treatment. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare that include contact information for state apiarists and diagnostic laboratories (www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). Do not attempt to treat unfamiliar diseases without professional guidance, as incorrect treatment may worsen the problem or contaminate honey and pollen. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the standard pollination fee per colony? Pollination fees vary by crop, region, and colony strength. Almond pollination fees are typically the highest, while fees for smaller fruits and vegetables are lower. Beekeepers should research local rates through beekeeping associations and extension services. Fees are negotiated per contract and may include performance bonuses. ### How many frames of bees are required for a pollination contract? Most almond pollination contracts require eight to ten frames of adult bees and four to six frames of brood per colony. Requirements for other crops may be lower. The contract should specify minimum strength standards. Beekeepers should assess colony strength before placement and replace weak colonies. ### What happens if my colonies are weak at placement? If colonies do not meet contract strength requirements, the grower may reject them or reduce payment. Beekeepers should replace weak colonies with strong ones from the apiary. Conduct a joint inspection with the grower before placement to avoid disputes. Document colony strength with photographs and written records. ### How do I transport colonies safely for pollination services? Use a flatbed truck with side racks and secure pallets with straps. Ensure adequate ventilation through open sides or screened panels. Avoid overcrowding and leave space between pallets for air circulation. Plan routes that minimize travel time and avoid rough roads. Inspect colonies after arrival for queen loss and stress. ### What should I do if pesticides kill my bees during a pollination contract? Document the damage with photographs and collect samples for testing. Notify the grower immediately and file a claim under the contract's pesticide clause. The contract should specify compensation for colony loss and reduced pollination fees. If the grower does not cooperate, consult an attorney. ### How do I negotiate a pollination contract with a grower? Know your costs before negotiating. Research local pollination fees and contract terms. Include clauses for colony strength, placement dates, payment schedule, pesticide notification, and liability. Require a deposit upon signing. Do not accept a contract that does not protect your interests. Have an attorney review the contract before signing. ### Can I use the same colonies for honey production after pollination? Yes, but colonies may need time to recover from pollination stress. Provide supplemental feed and monitor for disease after removal. Colonies used for almond pollination may produce almond honey, which has limited market value. Beekeepers should plan for a rest period before moving colonies to honey production sites. ### What records should I keep for pollination service contracts? Maintain records for each contract, including colony counts, strength assessments, placement dates, and payment receipts. Document colony condition with photographs. Keep copies of signed contracts and correspondence with the grower. Use records to analyze costs and improve future contracts. ## Related Farming Guides - [Seedstock Cattle Production Breeding Genetics And Business Planning](/knowledge/animal-farming/beef-cattle/seedstock-cattle-operation-breeding-genetics-and-business-model) - [Rabbit Colony System Design Space Ventilation Group Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/rabbits/rabbit-colony-system-design-space-ventilation-group-management) - [Beekeeping Records That Improve Colony Decisions](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/beekeeping-records-that-improve-colony-decisions) - [Honey Bee Colony Nutrition And Supplemental Feeding](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/honey-bee-colony-nutrition-and-supplemental-feeding) - [Mating Nucleus Management For Queen Production](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/mating-nucleus-management-for-queen-production) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Waste Management in the Apiary: Culling, Dead Hives, and Debris Disposal](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/waste-management-apiary-culling-dead-hives-debris-disposal) * [Package Bee Production: Business Planning and Colony Establishment](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/package-bee-production-business-planning-and-colony-establishment) * [Siting an Apiary: Legal Setbacks, Neighbor Relations, and Flight Paths](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/siting-apiary-legal-setbacks-neighbor-relations-flight-paths) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/pollination/en) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Investigation of viral and parasitic pathogens in Bombus terrestris (Hymenoptera: Apidae) populations.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41825512). Journal of invertebrate pathology, 2026. - [Invasive Africanized honeybees change the structure of native pollination networks in Brazil](https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-012-0235-8). Biological Invasions, 2012. - [Evaluation of sustainability of the beekeeping sector in the North West Region of Romania](https://api.elsevier.com/content/abstract/scopus_id/84873501653). Journal of Food Agriculture and Environment, 2012. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.