# Honey Bee Pesticide Risk Management: Avoiding and Mitigating Exposure ## Key Takeaways - Pesticide exposure is a primary preventable threat to honey bees, occurring through contaminated nectar, pollen, and water, leading to residues in hive products like beeswax and bee bread. Systemic insecticides, such as neonicotinoids, and pyrethroids pose significant risks, impacting both adult bees and developing larvae through acute poisoning and sublethal effects on cognition and immunity. - Proactive communication with growers and applicators is paramount, involving pre-season planning to identify crops, discuss pesticide use (products, timing, methods), and establish 48-hour notification protocols for applications. Documenting all communications is essential for accountability. - Strategic hive placement, at least one mile from treated fields, considering prevailing winds and topography, significantly reduces direct exposure. Providing clean, accessible water sources with floating platforms is critical to prevent bees from consuming contaminated water. - Mitigation strategies include hive relocation or confinement during applications, and long-term management of residue accumulation through regular comb rotation (20-30% annually) to reduce chronic exposure to lipophilic pesticides. - Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for Varroa mites is crucial, as stressed colonies are more susceptible to pesticides, and some miticides can interact synergistically with agricultural chemicals. Prioritizing cultural, mechanical, and biological controls over synthetic miticides minimizes the overall pesticide load. - Systematic monitoring of colony health, including adult bee mortality, brood patterns, and foraging behavior, coupled with detailed record-keeping of apiary locations, grower communications, and observed incidents, enables early detection of pesticide exposure and supports regulatory action. --- Pesticide exposure remains one of the most significant preventable threats to managed honey bee colonies. This article provides beekeepers with practical strategies to minimize pesticide-related losses through proactive communication with growers, careful hive placement, and evidence-based mitigation techniques. The content draws on peer-reviewed research and official guidance from organizations including the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the USDA National Agricultural Library. Beekeepers who implement these measures can reduce colony mortality, maintain productive foraging forces, and support sustainable pollination services. ## At a Glance | Risk Factor | Primary Mitigation Strategy | Expected Outcome | |-------------|---------------------------|------------------| | Spray drift during crop application | Hive relocation or physical barriers (e.g., shade cloth, wet burlap) | Reduced direct contact with pesticide droplets | | Contaminated water sources | Provide clean on-site water with floating platforms or continuous flow | Decreased consumption of pesticide-laden water | | Residue accumulation in hive products | Rotate comb, monitor residue levels, and avoid treating during nectar flow | Lower long-term exposure to stored pesticides in bee bread, propolis, beeswax, and royal jelly | ## Understanding Pesticide Exposure Pathways Honey bees encounter pesticides through multiple routes. Foraging bees collect contaminated nectar, pollen, and water and bring these materials back to the hive. The resulting residues accumulate in bee bread, propolis, beeswax, and royal jelly, as documented in a 2023 review published in *Food and Chemical Toxicology* (PubMed ID 37121430). This review examined literature on pesticide residues across these hive matrices and highlighted the potential for dietary exposure to bees and consumers of hive products. Neonicotinoid insecticides have received particular attention due to their systemic properties and persistence. A 2020 study in *Environmental Science & Technology* (PubMed ID 32092263) investigated the occurrence of neonicotinoids in Chinese apiculture and conducted a corresponding risk exposure assessment. The findings underscored that neonicotinoids can be present in honey and pollen at concentrations that pose risks to bee health. Pyrethroid insecticides also pose risks, particularly to developing larvae. A 2023 risk assessment published in *Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety* (PubMed ID 37890252) evaluated honey bee larvae exposure to pyrethroid insecticides in bee bread and honey. The study demonstrated that larvae consuming contaminated food during development may experience sublethal effects that compromise colony strength. Beekeepers must recognize that exposure is not limited to acute poisoning events. Sublethal doses impair navigation, foraging efficiency, learning, and immune function. A 2020 article in *Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution* (DOI 10.3389/fevo.2020.00022) explored the role of probiotics as mediators of environmental stress from sublethal pesticide exposure. This research suggests that gut health interventions may help bees cope with low-level contamination, though practical probiotic applications remain under investigation. The global scale of pesticide threat to honey bees has been characterized as a food security concern. A 2024 review in the *Online Journal of Biological Sciences* (DOI 10.3844/ojbsci.2024.232.243) examined the exposure of pesticides to honeybees and framed this issue as a global threat to food security, emphasizing the need for coordinated management approaches across agricultural systems. ## Communication with Growers and Applicators Effective communication between beekeepers and pesticide applicators is the foundation of pesticide risk management. Beekeepers should establish relationships with neighboring growers before the growing season begins. The FAO, through its Pollination page (www.fao.org/pollination/en), emphasizes the importance of collaboration between beekeepers and farmers to protect pollinator health while maintaining crop productivity. ### Pre-Season Planning Before placing hives near agricultural fields, beekeepers should: 1. Identify the crops grown within a three-mile radius of potential apiary sites. 2. Contact growers to discuss their planned pesticide applications, including product names, active ingredients, application methods, and timing. 3. Request notification of any pesticide applications that could affect bees, ideally 48 hours in advance. 4. Determine whether the grower follows integrated pest management (IPM) practices that minimize reliance on broad-spectrum insecticides. The USDA National Agricultural Library, through its Animal Health and Welfare page (www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare), provides resources on best management practices for apiary placement and grower communication. Beekeepers should document all communications in writing, including dates, names, and agreed-upon notification procedures. ### During the Growing Season When growers schedule pesticide applications, beekeepers have several options: - Move hives to a safe location at least three miles away for the duration of the pesticide's residual toxicity period. - Confine bees to the hive by closing the entrance after sunset and providing ventilation and water inside the hive. - Cover hives with wet burlap or shade cloth to reduce temperature stress during confinement. Beekeepers must weigh the costs of relocation against the risks of exposure. Migratory beekeepers who move colonies for pollination services face unique challenges. A 2024 study in *Journal of Hazardous Materials* (PubMed ID 39321480) examined pesticide exposure patterns in honey bees during migratory pollination. The research found that exposure profiles vary significantly depending on the crops visited and the timing of applications relative to bloom periods. ### Information Sources and Beekeeper Perceptions Beekeepers vary in how they obtain and trust management information. A 2022 study in the *Journal of Rural Studies* (DOI 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.10.020) examined perceptions of honey bee management information sources among backyard and sideliner beekeepers in the United States. The research found that beekeepers rely on a mix of formal extension resources, peer networks, and commercial suppliers. Understanding which sources are trusted in your region can help you identify reliable guidance for pesticide risk management. ## Hive Placement Strategies Hive location is one of the most controllable factors in pesticide risk management. Beekeepers should assess potential apiary sites for proximity to treated fields, prevailing wind patterns, and availability of uncontaminated forage. ### Distance from Treated Fields While no universal safe distance exists, placing hives at least one mile from fields treated with highly toxic insecticides reduces the risk of acute poisoning. Greater distances provide additional protection, particularly for systemic insecticides that persist in pollen and nectar. A 2026 field-level evaluation published in *Environmental Monitoring and Assessment* (PubMed ID 42168708) assessed honey bee exposure and risk from pesticides used in maize production. The study measured actual exposure levels in colonies placed at varying distances from treated fields and provided data to inform placement decisions. ### Wind and Topography Prevailing winds carry pesticide drift away from application sites. Beekeepers should position hives upwind of treated fields whenever possible. Natural barriers such as tree lines, hedgerows, and buildings can intercept drift and reduce the amount of pesticide reaching hives. Topographic features like hills and valleys also influence drift patterns, hives placed in depressions may experience higher exposure if pesticides settle in low-lying areas. ### Forage Diversity Colonies with access to diverse forage sources are less likely to concentrate pesticides from a single crop. Beekeepers should locate apiaries near natural habitats, cover crops, or flowering weeds that provide alternative pollen and nectar sources. Diverse forage dilutes pesticide residues in the colony's food supply and supports overall colony health. ## Providing Clean Water Contaminated water sources can poison entire colonies quickly. Bees collect water for cooling, brood rearing, and honey dilution. If the only available water contains pesticides, bees will transport these toxins back to the hive. Beekeepers should provide clean, reliable water sources at each apiary site. Effective waterers include: - Shallow pans or troughs with floating cork, wood, or pebbles to prevent drowning. - Drip systems or continuous-flow containers that maintain fresh water. - Waterers placed in shaded areas to reduce evaporation and algae growth. Water sources should be established before bees arrive at a new location and maintained throughout the season. Beekeepers should monitor water consumption and refill containers as needed. If nearby agricultural water sources are treated with pesticides, providing an attractive alternative reduces the likelihood that bees will collect contaminated water. ## Detoxification and Colony Support When pesticide exposure cannot be prevented entirely, beekeepers can support colony recovery through nutritional and management interventions. ### Nutritional Supplementation Well-nourished colonies are more resilient to pesticide stress. Beekeepers should ensure colonies have adequate pollen stores or provide pollen substitutes during dearth periods. Supplemental feeding with sugar syrup can help dilute contaminated honey stores and provide energy for detoxification processes. The FAO Animal Production and Health page (www.fao.org/animal-production/en) provides general guidance on livestock nutrition and health management that applies to honey bee colonies. While specific detoxification protocols are not detailed, the principle of supporting metabolic health through proper nutrition is well established. ### Probiotic and Gut Health Interventions Research into probiotics for pesticide mitigation is ongoing. The 2020 *Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution* article (DOI 10.3389/fevo.2020.00022) proposed that beneficial gut bacteria may help bees metabolize or tolerate certain pesticides. However, commercial probiotic products for honey bees are not yet validated for this purpose. Beekeepers should rely on proven management practices instead of unproven supplements. ### Comb Management Pesticide residues accumulate in beeswax over time. Older combs, particularly those used for brood rearing and pollen storage, can contain high concentrations of lipophilic pesticides. Beekeepers should: - Rotate out old combs on a regular schedule, typically replacing 20-30% of frames annually. - Avoid using combs from colonies that experienced known pesticide poisoning events. - Test beeswax for pesticide residues if contamination is suspected. A 2023 review in *Food and Chemical Toxicology* (PubMed ID 37121430) documented that pesticide residues in beeswax can persist for years and may be transferred to bee bread and royal jelly. Regular comb replacement reduces this long-term exposure pathway. ## Monitoring and Record Keeping Systematic monitoring allows beekeepers to detect pesticide exposure early and take corrective action. Records also provide documentation if pesticide poisoning is suspected and legal action is considered. ### Colony Health Assessments Beekeepers should conduct regular inspections during the active season, focusing on: - Adult bee mortality: Dead or dying bees in front of the hive, particularly with twisted wings or extended tongues, may indicate acute pesticide poisoning. - Brood pattern: Irregular or spotty brood patterns can result from queen exposure or contaminated larval food. - Foraging behavior: Disoriented or hyperactive bees may be experiencing sublethal effects. - Population trends: Rapid population decline without obvious disease or Varroa mite infestation warrants investigation. A 2026 study in *Tropical Animal Health and Production* (DOI 10.1007/s11250-026-05113-7) examined health status, sanitary gaps, and management practices in honey bee colonies within a tropical production system in Colombia. The research highlighted that regular health monitoring is essential for identifying problems early, including those related to pesticide exposure. ### Record Keeping Beekeepers should maintain detailed records for each apiary and colony, including: - Location coordinates and dates of placement. - Nearby crops and known pesticide applications. - Weather conditions during and after applications. - Colony population estimates and brood area measurements. - Any observed mortality events or abnormal behavior. - Actions taken to mitigate exposure. These records serve multiple purposes: they help beekeepers identify patterns over time, provide evidence for regulatory complaints, and support claims for compensation if colonies are damaged by pesticide misuse. ## Integrated Pest Management for Varroa Mites Varroa destructor is the most damaging pest of Apis mellifera colonies, as documented in a 2021 review in *Journal of Insect Science* (PubMed ID 34536080). Varroa management is directly relevant to pesticide risk because: - Stressed colonies are more susceptible to both Varroa and pesticide damage. - Some beekeepers use synthetic miticides that can interact with agricultural pesticides. - Weak colonies from Varroa infestation may not recover from pesticide exposure. The 2021 review on integrated pest management (IPM) control of Varroa destructor (PubMed ID 34536080) emphasized that IPM approaches reduce reliance on chemical treatments. Beekeepers should implement cultural, mechanical, and biological controls before resorting to synthetic miticides. This approach minimizes the total pesticide load on colonies and reduces the risk of synergistic toxicity between miticides and agricultural pesticides. ### IPM Strategies for Varroa Effective IPM for Varroa includes: - Drone brood removal to reduce mite reproduction. - Screened bottom boards to improve hygiene and mite drop monitoring. - Formic acid or oxalic acid treatments applied according to label directions. - Brood breaks to disrupt mite reproduction cycles. Beekeepers should avoid applying miticides during nectar flows or when colonies are under stress from other factors. Combining multiple chemical treatments increases the risk of resistance development and residue accumulation in hive products. ## Common Failure Patterns Beekeepers who fail to manage pesticide risk often encounter predictable problems. Recognizing these patterns helps prevent future losses. ### Failure to Communicate The most common failure is inadequate communication with growers. Beekeepers who assume growers will notify them of applications are often disappointed. Without a written agreement or established notification protocol, beekeepers may learn of pesticide applications only after colonies are affected. ### Ignoring Drift Potential Even when hives are placed at recommended distances, pesticide drift can occur under certain conditions. Beekeepers who do not monitor wind direction during application seasons may find their colonies exposed despite careful placement. Temperature inversions, high winds, and fine spray droplets all increase drift potential. ### Neglecting Water Sources Beekeepers who rely on natural water sources without providing alternatives risk colony contamination. Agricultural runoff, irrigation water, and puddles in treated fields can all contain pesticides. Providing clean water is a simple, low-cost intervention that prevents significant exposure. ### Overreliance on Chemical Treatments Beekeepers who use synthetic miticides without implementing IPM practices increase the pesticide burden on their colonies. Residues from multiple chemical classes can accumulate in wax and bee bread, creating a toxic environment for developing bees. The 2023 review in *Food and Chemical Toxicology* (PubMed ID 37121430) documented that beeswax often contains mixtures of pesticides, including both agricultural chemicals and beekeeper-applied treatments. ## Practical Implementation Steps Beekeepers can follow a structured approach to implement pesticide risk management in their operations. ### Step 1: Assess Your Risk Landscape Map all agricultural fields within a three-mile radius of each apiary site. Record crop types, typical pesticide use patterns, and application timing. Identify water sources that bees may access. Document prevailing wind directions during the growing season. ### Step 2: Establish Communication Protocols Contact growers before the season begins. Request written notification agreements for pesticide applications. Share your apiary locations and request that applicators avoid spraying within one mile of your hives when bees are foraging. ### Step 3: Prepare Mitigation Resources Assemble equipment for hive relocation or confinement, including hive straps, entrance reducers, ventilation screens, and shade cloth. Stock clean water containers and floating materials. Maintain a supply of sugar syrup and pollen substitute for emergency feeding. ### Step 4: Implement Monitoring Systems Conduct weekly colony inspections during the active season. Record population estimates, brood patterns, and any mortality events. Note weather conditions and nearby agricultural activities. Photograph any unusual findings. ### Step 5: Respond to Exposure Events When exposure is suspected, immediately move surviving colonies to a clean location. Collect samples of dead bees, live bees, pollen, and honey for testing. Contact your state apiculturist or extension specialist. Notify the grower and document all communications. ## Records and Measurements | Record Type | What to Document | Frequency | |-------------|-----------------|-----------| | Apiary location | GPS coordinates, distance to nearest fields, crop types, wind patterns | At placement and when crops change | | Grower communications | Dates, names, products discussed, notification agreements | Pre-season and before each application | | Colony health | Adult population, brood area, mortality counts, behavior observations | Weekly during active season | | Pesticide incidents | Date, time, weather, observed symptoms, samples collected, actions taken | Immediately when suspected | | Comb rotation | Frame age, replacement dates, source of new foundation | Annually | ## Limitations and Professional Escalation Beekeepers must recognize the limitations of their ability to control pesticide exposure. Even with best practices, some exposure is unavoidable in agricultural landscapes. When colonies experience significant losses, professional escalation may be necessary. ### When to Seek Professional Help Beekeepers should contact state or provincial apiculturists, university extension specialists, or regulatory agencies when: - Acute poisoning events kill more than 10% of adult bees in a single apiary. - Multiple colonies show unexplained population decline or brood failure. - Pesticide residues in hive products exceed regulatory thresholds for human consumption. - Growers refuse to provide notification of pesticide applications. - Pesticide misuse or illegal applications are suspected. The USDA National Agricultural Library's Animal Health and Welfare page (www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare) provides links to state apiculture programs and diagnostic laboratories that can assist with pesticide testing and colony health assessments. ### Legal and Regulatory Considerations Pesticide regulations vary by jurisdiction. Beekeepers should familiarize themselves with local laws regarding: - Notification requirements for pesticide applications near apiaries. - Label restrictions that prohibit application to blooming crops when bees are present. - Compensation mechanisms for pesticide damage to managed colonies. Documentation is critical for any legal or regulatory action. Beekeepers should preserve samples of dead bees, hive products, and contaminated water for testing. Photographs of affected colonies and records of communication with growers strengthen any claim. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How far should I place my hives from treated fields to minimize pesticide exposure? No single distance guarantees safety, but placing hives at least one mile from fields treated with highly toxic insecticides reduces acute poisoning risk. Greater distances provide additional protection, especially for systemic insecticides that persist in pollen and nectar. A 2026 field-level evaluation in *Environmental Monitoring and Assessment* (PubMed ID 42168708) measured actual exposure levels in colonies near maize production and provided data to inform placement decisions. Beekeepers should also consider wind patterns, topography, and the specific pesticides used. ### What should I do if I suspect my colonies have been poisoned by pesticides? Immediately move surviving colonies to a clean location if possible. Document the scene with photographs and collect samples of dead bees, live bees, pollen, and honey for testing. Contact your state apiculturist or extension specialist for guidance on sample submission and testing. Notify the grower and pesticide applicator of your observations. Preserve all records of communication and colony health assessments. ### Can I use probiotics to protect my bees from pesticide damage? Research into probiotics for pesticide mitigation is ongoing. A 2020 article in *Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution* (DOI 10.3389/fevo.2020.00022) proposed that beneficial gut bacteria may help bees cope with sublethal pesticide exposure. However, commercial probiotic products for honey bees are not yet validated for this purpose. Beekeepers should focus on proven management practices such as providing clean water, diverse forage, and proper nutrition instead of relying on unproven supplements. ### How do pesticide residues accumulate in hive products? Foraging bees collect contaminated nectar, pollen, and water and bring these materials back to the hive. Residues accumulate in bee bread, propolis, beeswax, and royal jelly over time. A 2023 review in *Food and Chemical Toxicology* (PubMed ID 37121430) documented that these hive matrices can contain mixtures of pesticides from multiple sources. Lipophilic pesticides, such as pyrethroids and organochlorines, persist in beeswax for years. Regular comb replacement reduces long-term exposure. ### What is the difference between acute and sublethal pesticide exposure? Acute exposure causes immediate mortality or obvious symptoms such as trembling, paralysis, or disoriented flight. Sublethal exposure does not kill bees outright but impairs navigation, foraging efficiency, learning, immune function, and brood development. Sublethal effects are harder to detect but can weaken colonies over time. A 2020 study in *Environmental Science & Technology* (PubMed ID 32092263) assessed neonicotinoid residues in Chinese apiculture and highlighted the risks of chronic, low-level exposure. ### Should I move my hives during pesticide applications or confine them? Both options have tradeoffs. Moving hives to a safe location at least three miles away is the most effective protection but requires labor and transportation resources. Confining bees by closing the entrance after sunset and providing ventilation and water inside the hive is less disruptive but stresses colonies, especially in hot weather. Beekeepers should choose the option that best fits their resources and the specific risk level. ### How can I work with growers to reduce pesticide risks to my bees? Establish relationships with neighboring growers before the growing season. Discuss their planned pesticide applications, including products, timing, and application methods. Request notification at least 48 hours before applications. Encourage growers to adopt integrated pest management practices that minimize reliance on broad-spectrum insecticides. The FAO Pollination page (www.fao.org/pollination/en) emphasizes the importance of collaboration between beekeepers and farmers for pollinator protection. ### What records should I keep for pesticide risk management? Maintain records for each apiary and colony, including location coordinates, placement dates, nearby crops, known pesticide applications, weather conditions, colony population estimates, brood area measurements, observed mortality events, and actions taken to mitigate exposure. These records help identify patterns over time, provide evidence for regulatory complaints, and support claims for compensation if colonies are damaged by pesticide misuse. ## Related Farming Guides - [Preparing Honey Bee Colonies For Winter](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/preparing-honey-bee-colonies-for-winter) - [Honey Bee Colony Nutrition And Supplemental Feeding](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/honey-bee-colony-nutrition-and-supplemental-feeding) - [Honey Bee Virus Observation And Diagnostic Planning](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/honey-bee-virus-observation-and-diagnostic-planning) - [Honey Bee Forage Planning And Floral Resource Assessment](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/honey-bee-forage-planning-and-floral-resource-assessment) - [Honey Bee Queen Rearing Planning Mating And Recordkeeping](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/honey-bee-queen-rearing-planning-mating-and-recordkeeping) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Waste Management in the Apiary: Culling, Dead Hives, and Debris Disposal](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/waste-management-apiary-culling-dead-hives-debris-disposal) * [Package Bee Production: Business Planning and Colony Establishment](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/package-bee-production-business-planning-and-colony-establishment) * [Siting an Apiary: Legal Setbacks, Neighbor Relations, and Flight Paths](/knowledge/animal-farming/apiculture/siting-apiary-legal-setbacks-neighbor-relations-flight-paths) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/pollination/en) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Pesticide residues in bee bread, propolis, beeswax and royal jelly - A review of the literature and dietary risk assessment.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37121430). Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial [Biological Research](/blog/news/biological-research) Association, 2023. - [Occurrence of Neonicotinoids in Chinese Apiculture and a Corresponding Risk Exposure Assessment.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32092263). Environmental science & technology, 2020. - [Field-level evaluation of honey bee exposure and risk from pesticides used in maize production.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42168708). Environmental monitoring and assessment, 2026. - [Pesticide exposure patterns in honey bees during migratory pollination.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/39321480). Journal of hazardous materials, 2024. - [Risk assessment of honeybee larvae exposure to pyrethroid insecticides in beebread and honey.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37890252). Ecotoxicology and environmental safety, 2023. - [Integrated Pest Management Control of Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae), the Most Damaging Pest of (Apis mellifera L. (Hymenoptera: Apidae)) Colonies.](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34536080). Journal of insect science (Online), 2021. - [Understanding the Effects of Sublethal Pesticide Exposure on Honey Bees: A Role for Probiotics as Mediators of Environmental Stress](https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2020.00022). Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution, 2020. - [Health status, sanitary gaps, and management practices in honey bee colonies within a tropical production system in Colombia](https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-026-05113-7). Tropical Animal Health and Production, 2026. - [Perceptions of honey bee management information sources among backyard and sideliner beekeepers in the United States](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2022.10.020). Journal of Rural Studies, 2022. - [The Exposure of Pesticides to Honeybees: A Global Threat to Food Security](https://doi.org/10.3844/ojbsci.2024.232.243). Online Journal of Biological Sciences, 2024. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.