# Deer Farm Fencing: Height, Materials, and Cost Guide ## Key Takeaways - Fence height is species-specific, with white-tailed deer requiring a minimum of 8 feet, elk 8-10 feet, and fallow deer 6-8 feet, to prevent escapes and ensure containment, particularly during breeding seasons. - Woven wire mesh with 2x4 inch openings is standard for preventing fawn escape and adult entanglement, with knotted mesh offering superior tension retention over twisted variants for long-term durability. - Post material selection impacts longevity and cost, with treated wood posts offering a 10-15 year service life, while steel posts provide greater strength and resistance to damage, lasting 20 years or more. - Proper installation, including critical tensioning of high-tensile wire to 200-300 pounds per strand and robust bracing of corners and gates, is essential to prevent sagging and structural failure. - Predator exclusion measures, such as a buried wire apron for coyotes and dogs or increased fence height and heavy-gauge wire for bears, are vital for herd safety and must be integrated into the fencing design. - Regulatory compliance with USDA APHIS and state agencies is mandatory, requiring adherence to specific fencing standards for biosecurity and disease prevention, particularly concerning contact with wild cervid populations. --- ## At a Glance Deer farm fencing must contain animals, exclude predators, and meet regulatory standards for cervid operations. The table below summarizes common fencing specifications for white-tailed deer, elk, and fallow deer based on typical agricultural practice. | Species | Minimum Height | Mesh Size | Recommended Post Material | Estimated Cost per Linear Foot | |---------|---------------|-----------|--------------------------|-------------------------------| | White-tailed deer | 8 feet | 2 x 4 inches woven wire | Treated wood or steel | $8 to $15 | | Elk | 8 to 10 feet | 2 x 4 inches woven wire | Steel or heavy-duty treated wood | $12 to $20 | | Fallow deer | 6 to 8 feet | 2 x 4 inches woven wire | Treated wood or steel | $7 to $14 | Cost estimates include materials and basic installation. Actual expenses vary by terrain, labor rates, and local material availability. Consult the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service for cervid-specific requirements at [www.aphis.usda.gov](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cervid). ## Fence Height Requirements by Species ### White-Tailed Deer White-tailed deer are agile jumpers. A fence height of 8 feet is the standard minimum for containment. Bucks in rut may test fences more aggressively, and does with fawns may attempt to clear lower barriers. Observations from established farms indicate that 8-foot fences reduce escape events to near zero when properly tensioned and maintained. For operations with high deer density or known jumpers, some producers extend height to 9 feet. ### Elk Elk require taller fences than white-tailed deer. Minimum height recommendations range from 8 to 10 feet. Elk are powerful animals that can push against fences and jump when motivated. A 10-foot fence provides a greater margin of safety, particularly for bull elk during the breeding season. Some operations use 9-foot fences with an angled top extension to deter climbing. The additional height increases material cost by approximately 15 to 25 percent compared to an 8-foot fence. ### Fallow Deer Fallow deer are smaller and less athletic than elk. Fence heights of 6 to 8 feet are common. A 7-foot fence may suffice for does, but bucks with antlers may test the fence during the rut. Many producers choose 8-foot fences to simplify management across multiple species and to provide a consistent barrier. Fallow deer are known to push under fences if ground clearance is excessive, making bottom wire placement critical. ## Mesh Size and Material Selection ### Woven Wire Mesh Woven wire mesh is the most common fencing material for deer farms. A 2 x 4 inch mesh opening prevents fawns from slipping through and stops adult deer from getting their heads caught. Smaller mesh sizes, such as 1 x 2 inches, increase cost and weight but may be necessary for fawn containment in high-density operations. Mesh openings larger than 2 x 4 inches allow fawns to escape and adult deer to become entangled. ### Knotted vs. Twisted Mesh Knotted mesh maintains tension better than twisted mesh. Knotted fences resist sagging and are less likely to fail at connection points. Twisted mesh is less expensive but requires more frequent tightening and replacement. For permanent perimeter fences, knotted woven wire is the preferred choice. The initial cost difference is typically 10 to 20 percent higher for knotted mesh, but the extended service life offsets the expense. ### High-Tensile vs. Standard Wire High-tensile wire (12.5 gauge or heavier) provides greater strength and longevity. Standard wire (14 gauge or lighter) is cheaper but may stretch over time and require more maintenance. High-tensile fences can be tensioned to higher levels, reducing the number of line posts needed and lowering overall material cost. The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides information on animal production systems at [www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). ## Post Materials and Installation ### Treated Wood Posts Treated wood posts are widely used for deer fencing. Southern yellow pine treated with chromated copper arsenate or alkaline copper quaternary is common. Post diameter should be at least 4 to 5 inches for corner and brace posts, and 3 to 4 inches for line posts. Wood posts require setting in concrete or tamped soil to prevent leaning. Service life for treated wood posts ranges from 10 to 15 years depending on soil moisture and termite pressure. ### Steel Posts Steel T-posts or pipe posts offer greater strength and longer life than wood. Steel posts do not rot and resist damage from deer rubbing. They are more expensive upfront but may reduce long-term replacement costs. Steel posts require specialized driving equipment and are heavier to transport. For perimeter fences in wet or rocky soil, steel posts reduce installation complications associated with digging. ### Concrete Posts Concrete posts are used in some regions for permanent perimeter fences. They are heavy, durable, and resistant to weather and animal damage. Concrete posts are more expensive and difficult to install than wood or steel. They are typically used only for corner and gate posts. Concrete posts can last 30 years or more with minimal maintenance. ### Post Spacing Post spacing depends on wire type and terrain. For high-tensile woven wire, line posts are typically spaced 12 to 16 feet apart. For standard woven wire, spacing of 8 to 12 feet is common. Closer spacing is needed on uneven ground to maintain fence tension and prevent sagging. On flat, well-drained ground, maximum spacing can be used to reduce material costs. ## Installation Methods ### Tensioning the Fence Proper tensioning is critical for deer fence performance. High-tensile fences require a mechanical tensioner to achieve the recommended tension of 200 to 300 pounds per strand. Standard woven wire can be tensioned by hand with a come-along. Over-tensioning can cause wire breakage, while under-tensioning leads to sagging and gaps. Tension should be checked annually and after severe weather events. ### Bracing Corners and Gates Corner posts and gate posts must be braced to withstand fence tension. A diagonal brace from the corner post to a brace post set 8 to 10 feet away is standard. Double bracing is recommended for long fence runs or high-tension fences. Gate openings require heavy-duty posts and hinges to support the gate weight. A poorly braced corner is the most common structural failure point in deer fences. ### Ground Clearance The bottom of the fence should be within 2 to 4 inches of the ground to prevent deer from crawling under. On uneven terrain, the fence may need to be stepped or trenched to maintain ground contact. Some producers use a bottom wire or board to close gaps. Ground clearance must be checked after heavy rain, frost heave, or animal digging. ### Top Wire or Rail A top wire or rail helps maintain fence height and prevents deer from pushing the fence down. High-tensile fences often use a single top wire. Woven wire fences may include a top rail of wood or pipe for added rigidity. The top component must be visible to deer to prevent them from running into the fence at speed. ## Cost per Linear Foot ### Material Costs Material costs vary by region and supplier. Treated wood posts cost $3 to $8 each. Steel T-posts cost $2 to $5 each. Woven wire fencing costs $0.50 to $2.00 per linear foot depending on gauge and mesh size. High-tensile wire is more expensive but requires fewer posts. The table below provides a detailed cost breakdown for a typical 8-foot deer fence. | Component | Cost per Unit | Quantity per 100 Feet | Total Cost per 100 Feet | |-----------|---------------|----------------------|-------------------------| | Woven wire (8 ft high) | $1.50 per ft | 100 ft | $150 | | Line posts (steel) | $4.00 each | 8 posts | $32 | | Corner posts (treated wood) | $8.00 each | 2 posts | $16 | | Brace assemblies | $15.00 each | 2 assemblies | $30 | | Tension wire and clips | $0.20 per ft | 100 ft | $20 | | Total materials | | | $248 | ### Installation Costs Professional installation adds $3 to $8 per linear foot. Do-it-yourself installation reduces cost but requires specialized tools and labor. For a 10-acre deer farm with a perimeter of approximately 2,600 feet, total fencing cost can range from $20,000 to $50,000. Terrain, soil conditions, and access for equipment affect installation labor hours. ### Long-Term Costs Maintenance costs include replacing broken wires, tightening sagging sections, and repairing gate hardware. Wood posts may need replacement every 10 to 15 years. Steel posts last 20 years or more. Annual maintenance costs typically run 2 to 5 percent of initial installation cost. Budgeting for fence replacement at 20-year intervals is prudent for long-term farm planning. ## Predator Exclusion ### Coyotes and Dogs Coyotes and domestic dogs can dig under fences or climb over low barriers. A fence height of 6 feet or more deters most climbing attempts. An apron of wire extending 12 to 18 inches outward from the bottom of the fence prevents digging. Some producers use an electric wire offset 6 inches from the fence at ground level. Predator pressure varies by region, and local extension services can provide guidance on common threats. ### Bears Bears can damage fences by pushing through or climbing over. A fence height of 8 feet or more is recommended in bear country. Heavy-gauge woven wire and steel posts are necessary to withstand bear pressure. Electric fencing may be added as a deterrent. Bear damage is most common in spring when natural food sources are scarce. ### Birds of Prey Birds of prey are a concern for fawns and small deer. A top cover of netting or wire may be needed in areas with high raptor populations. This adds significant cost and complexity to the fence system. For most operations, predator exclusion focuses on ground-based threats, and bird predation is managed through herd supervision during fawning season. ## Regulatory and Biosecurity Considerations ### USDA APHIS Requirements The USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service oversees cervid health and movement. Fencing must meet minimum standards for containment and biosecurity. Contact [www.aphis.usda.gov](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cervid) for current requirements. Regulations may change in response to disease outbreaks, and producers should verify requirements annually. ### State and Local Regulations Many states have specific fencing requirements for deer farms. These may include minimum height, mesh size, and gate specifications. Check with your state department of agriculture or wildlife agency before building. Some states require permits for fences over a certain height or in specific zoning districts. ### Biosecurity Fencing Perimeter fencing should prevent contact between farmed deer and wild deer. Double fencing or a buffer zone may be required in areas with chronic wasting disease. The Food and Agriculture Organization provides guidance on biosecurity for animal production at [www.fao.org/animal-production/en](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). The FAO Domestic Animal Diversity Information System also offers resources on livestock management at [www.fao.org/dad-is](https://www.fao.org/dad-is). ## Common Failure Patterns ### Sagging Fences Sagging occurs when tension is lost due to loose posts, broken wires, or ground movement. Regular inspection and retensioning are necessary. Sagging fences create gaps that deer can exploit. Sagging is most common at mid-span between posts and at gate openings. ### Deer Rubbing Damage Bucks rub their antlers on fence posts and wires during the rut. This can loosen posts and break wires. Steel posts are resistant to rubbing damage. Wood posts may need protective sleeves or replacement. Rubbing damage is concentrated in areas where bucks travel and during the breeding season from September to November. ### Gate Failures Gate hinges and latches are common failure points. Heavy gates can sag and drag on the ground. Use heavy-duty hinges and a latch that cannot be opened by deer. Inspect gates regularly. Gate posts must be set deeper and braced more heavily than standard line posts. ### Ground Gaps Erosion, animal digging, or settling can create gaps under the fence. Fill gaps with soil or rock, or install a bottom wire. Check ground contact after heavy rain or snowmelt. Ground gaps are the most common escape route for fawns and small deer. ## Records and Measurements ### Fence Inspection Log Maintain a log of fence inspections. Record date, section inspected, condition, and any repairs made. Inspect perimeter fences at least monthly and after storms. A standardized inspection form ensures consistent data collection and helps identify recurring problems. ### Maintenance Records Track material costs, labor hours, and replacement parts. This data helps budget for future repairs and justifies capital improvements. Records should include the date of installation for each fence section to plan replacement schedules. ### Escape Incident Reports Document any deer escapes. Record date, location, cause, and corrective action. Use this information to improve fence design and maintenance. Escape reports are also important for regulatory compliance and may be required by state authorities. ## Welfare and Safety Context ### Animal Welfare Proper fencing prevents injury and stress. Deer that escape may be injured by vehicles or predators. Fences that are too low or poorly maintained increase escape risk. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare at [www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). Sharp wire ends, loose strands, and protruding hardware can cause lacerations and should be addressed promptly. ### Worker Safety Fence installation and maintenance involve heavy materials and tools. Use proper lifting techniques and personal protective equipment. Power tools for post driving and wire tensioning require training and caution. Working alone on fence repairs is discouraged, a second person should be present for emergency response. ### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) Fencing that allows contact between farmed and wild deer increases disease transmission risk. Chronic wasting disease and tuberculosis can affect deer herds and impact food safety. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration provides veterinary resources at [www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). Biosecure fencing is a critical component of food safety programs for cervid operations. ## Professional Escalation Criteria ### When to Consult a Specialist Consult a fencing contractor or agricultural engineer if: - Terrain is steep, rocky, or wet - Fence run exceeds 1,000 feet - Soil conditions are poor for post setting - Regulatory requirements are complex A specialist can provide site-specific recommendations that reduce long-term costs and failure risk. ### When to Contact a Veterinarian Contact a veterinarian if: - Deer are injured by the fence - Escaped deer are recaptured and need health assessment - Disease concerns arise from fence breaches Injuries from fencing can become infected and require veterinary treatment. Recaptured deer should be quarantined and observed for signs of disease or stress. ### When to Contact Regulatory Authorities Contact USDA APHIS or state authorities if: - Deer escape and cannot be recaptured - Wild deer are found inside the enclosure - Disease is suspected in the herd Timely reporting of escapes and disease concerns is required by most state cervid programs and may affect herd certification status. ## Decision Framework for Fence Type Selection Selecting the correct fence type for a deer farm requires a structured evaluation of species, terrain, budget, and regulatory requirements. A systematic decision framework helps producers avoid costly mistakes and ensures the fence meets containment and biosecurity goals. The following framework is based on common management decisions observed in commercial cervid operations and aligns with guidance from the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service at [www.aphis.usda.gov](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cervid). ### Step 1: Define Primary Containment Species The first decision point is the target species. White-tailed deer, elk, and fallow deer have different height and strength requirements as detailed in the existing article. If the farm will hold multiple species, select the fence specifications for the largest and most athletic species. For example, a farm with both white-tailed deer and elk should use elk-grade fencing to avoid retrofitting later. Record the species and expected mature body weight for each enclosure in the farm management plan. ### Step 2: Assess Terrain and Soil Conditions Terrain directly affects post selection, spacing, and installation method. Evaluate the following factors for each fence line: - **Soil type**: Sandy or loamy soils allow easy post driving but may require deeper setting. Rocky or clay soils may need auger drilling or steel posts driven with a hydraulic driver. Wet soils accelerate wood post rot and may require concrete setting or steel posts. - **Slope**: Steep slopes require closer post spacing and may need stepped fencing to maintain ground clearance. On slopes greater than 15 percent, reduce post spacing by 25 percent from standard recommendations. - **Drainage**: Areas with standing water after rain require posts resistant to moisture, such as steel or concrete. Wood posts in wet areas may fail within 5 to 7 years. Document soil type and slope for each fence section in the farm records. This information guides post material selection and helps predict maintenance intervals. ### Step 3: Determine Predator Pressure Predator species and population density vary by region. Use local wildlife agency data or extension service reports to assess risk. The decision points are: - **Coyotes and dogs present**: Install a wire apron extending 12 to 18 inches outward from the bottom of the fence. Bury the apron 2 to 4 inches deep or cover with soil. Consider an offset electric wire at ground level. - **Bears present**: Use 8-foot minimum fence height, heavy-gauge woven wire (12.5 gauge or heavier), and steel posts. Add a top electric wire as a deterrent. - **Birds of prey present**: Evaluate fawn mortality history. If predation is documented, consider netting or wire top cover over fawning areas. This is a significant cost addition and should be justified by records. Record predator sightings and damage incidents in a log. This data supports decisions about additional exclusion measures. ### Step 4: Evaluate Budget and Long-Term Cost Total fencing cost includes materials, installation, and maintenance over the expected service life. Use the following decision criteria: - **Short-term budget limited (less than 5 years of operation)**: Choose standard woven wire with treated wood posts. Plan for post replacement at 10 to 12 years. Accept higher annual maintenance. - **Long-term operation (10 years or more)**: Invest in high-tensile woven wire with steel posts. Higher initial cost is offset by lower maintenance and longer service life. Budget for fence replacement at 20-year intervals. - **Regulatory compliance required**: Some states mandate specific materials or heights for cervid operations. Check with state authorities before purchasing materials. Non-compliant fencing may need to be replaced at full cost. Create a cost comparison table for each fence section using current local material prices. Include installation labor, either as a contractor quote or estimated do-it-yourself hours at your labor rate. ### Step 5: Select Fence Configuration Based on the first four steps, choose a fence configuration from the following options: **Option A: Standard White-Tailed Deer Fence** - Height: 8 feet - Mesh: 2 x 4 inch knotted woven wire, 14 gauge - Posts: Treated wood, 4-inch diameter line posts at 10-foot spacing - Bracing: Diagonal brace at corners and gates - Ground clearance: 2 to 4 inches - Estimated cost: $8 to $12 per linear foot **Option B: High-Security Elk Fence** - Height: 10 feet - Mesh: 2 x 4 inch knotted woven wire, 12.5 gauge high-tensile - Posts: Steel T-posts or pipe posts, 12-foot spacing - Bracing: Double diagonal brace at corners and gates - Ground clearance: 2 to 4 inches with wire apron - Estimated cost: $15 to $20 per linear foot **Option C: Multi-Species or Predator-Pressure Fence** - Height: 8 to 10 feet depending on largest species - Mesh: 2 x 4 inch knotted woven wire, 12.5 gauge - Posts: Steel or concrete at corners, steel line posts - Bracing: Heavy-duty with concrete footings - Ground clearance: 2 inches with buried apron - Additional: Top electric wire, offset ground wire - Estimated cost: $18 to $25 per linear foot Document the selected configuration for each enclosure in the farm records, including the rationale for each decision. ### Step 6: Plan Inspection and Maintenance Schedule A fence is only as effective as its maintenance program. Establish a schedule based on the selected configuration: - **Monthly inspection**: Walk the entire perimeter. Check for sagging, loose posts, ground gaps, and wire damage. Record findings in the fence inspection log. - **Seasonal maintenance**: Before and after winter, retension wires, replace damaged sections, and reset leaning posts. Clear vegetation from fence lines to prevent rust and allow visual inspection. - **Post-storm inspection**: After high winds, heavy rain, or snow, check for damage. Document any repairs needed and complete them within 48 hours. - **Annual tension check**: Use a tension gauge on high-tensile fences. Adjust to manufacturer specifications. For standard woven wire, check for sagging and tighten as needed. ### Step 7: Establish Escalation Criteria Define conditions that require professional intervention: - **Structural failure**: More than 10 percent of posts leaning or broken in a single fence section. Consult a fencing contractor. - **Recurrent escapes**: Two or more escapes from the same fence section within 12 months. Investigate root cause and consider redesign. - **Regulatory non-compliance**: If an inspection by state or federal authorities identifies deficiencies, contact a specialist to plan corrective action. - **Disease concern**: If wild deer are found inside the enclosure or fence damage allows contact with wild cervids, contact a veterinarian and regulatory authorities immediately. Record all escalation events in the farm management log, including date, issue, action taken, and outcome. ### Common Decision Errors Producers often make the following mistakes when selecting fence types: - **Choosing minimum height for cost savings**: An 8-foot fence for elk may contain most animals but increases escape risk during the rut. The cost of recapturing or losing a bull elk far exceeds the additional material cost for a 10-foot fence. - **Ignoring soil conditions**: Wood posts in wet soil fail prematurely. Steel or concrete posts are a better long-term investment in poorly drained areas. - **Underestimating predator pressure**: A fence that contains deer but allows coyotes or bears to enter will result in predation losses. Include predator exclusion in the initial design instead of retrofitting later. - **Skipping bracing**: Corner and gate bracing is the most common structural weakness. Inadequate bracing leads to fence sagging and eventual failure. Double bracing is recommended for all perimeter fences. ### Records and Measurements Maintain the following records for fence type decisions: - **Enclosure specification sheet**: For each enclosure, record species, fence height, mesh type and gauge, post material and spacing, bracing type, ground clearance, and installation date. - **Material purchase receipts**: Keep receipts for all fencing materials. This data supports cost analysis and warranty claims. - **Inspection log**: Date, section inspected, condition rating (good, fair, poor), repairs made, and inspector name. - **Escape and predator incident log**: Date, species, location, cause, corrective action, and cost. - **Maintenance cost ledger**: Annual costs for materials, labor, and contractor services. Use this data to calculate cost per linear foot over the fence service life. These records support informed decisions when replacing or expanding fencing and provide documentation for regulatory compliance. The USDA Agricultural Research Service offers additional resources on animal production systems at [www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). ## Frequently Asked Questions ### What is the best fence height for white-tailed deer? An 8-foot fence is the standard minimum height for white-tailed deer. This height prevents most jumping attempts and is widely used in commercial deer farming. Some producers use 9-foot fences in areas with high deer density or known jumpers. ### How much does deer fencing cost per foot? Cost ranges from $7 to $20 per linear foot depending on materials, height, and installation method. High-tensile woven wire with steel posts is at the higher end of the range. Do-it-yourself installation reduces cost but requires specialized tools and labor. ### Can I use electric fencing for deer? Electric fencing can be used as a supplement but is not reliable as a primary containment method. Deer may push through electric fences when motivated, especially during the rut. Electric fencing is more commonly used for predator exclusion than for deer containment. ### What mesh size prevents fawns from escaping? A 2 x 4 inch mesh opening is standard for fawn containment. Smaller mesh sizes, such as 1 x 2 inches, may be needed for very small fawns or high-density operations. Mesh openings larger than 2 x 4 inches allow fawns to slip through. ### How long does deer fencing last? High-tensile woven wire with steel posts can last 20 years or more with proper maintenance. Wood posts may need replacement every 10 to 15 years. Fence lifespan depends on climate, soil conditions, and maintenance frequency. ### Do I need a permit to build a deer fence? Permit requirements vary by state and local jurisdiction. Check with your state department of agriculture and local building department before construction. Some areas require permits for fences over 6 feet in height. ### How do I prevent deer from digging under the fence? Install an apron of wire extending 12 to 18 inches outward from the bottom of the fence. Bury the apron 2 to 4 inches deep or cover it with soil. Check ground contact after heavy rain or animal activity. ### What is the best fence for elk? A 10-foot high-tensile woven wire fence with steel posts is recommended for elk. Heavy-gauge wire and strong bracing are necessary to contain bulls. Some operations use 9-foot fences with an angled top extension to reduce height while maintaining containment. ## Related Farming Guides - [Livestock Fencing Systems Types Costs Installation](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-fencing-systems-types-costs-installation) - [Biosecurity For Fish Farms](/knowledge/animal-farming/aquaculture/biosecurity-for-fish-farms) - [How To Write A Farm Biosecurity Plan](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/how-to-write-a-farm-biosecurity-plan) - [Livestock On Farm Processing Regulations Equipment Business Planning](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-on-farm-processing-regulations-equipment-business-planning) - [Livestock Labor Management Hiring Training Retention](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-labor-management-hiring-training-retention) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Water Buffalo Genetic Improvement and Breeding Programs](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-genetic-improvement-breeding-programs) * [Camel Farm Biosecurity: Disease Prevention and Quarantine Protocols](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-farm-biosecurity-disease-prevention-quarantine-protocols) * [Water Buffalo Farm Equipment and Infrastructure](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-farm-equipment-infrastructure) ## References and Further Reading - [www.aphis.usda.gov](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cervid) - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). USDA Agricultural Research Service. - [Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.