# Cervid Health Observation and Disease Prevention ## Key Takeaways - Daily visual health checks are paramount for early disease detection, focusing on alertness, appetite, gait, coat condition, nasal/ocular discharge, and fecal consistency; any animal exhibiting dullness, isolation, drooling, staggering, or weight loss for over 24 hours necessitates immediate veterinary escalation. - Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) surveillance relies on annual testing of harvested or deceased adult animals, with clinical signs including progressive weight loss despite appetite, excessive salivation, listlessness, and neurological deficits like stumbling or head tremors. - Tuberculosis (TB) in bison and elk requires routine intradermal tuberculin testing, with reactor animals necessitating quarantine and confirmatory testing due to the zoonotic risk posed by *Mycobacterium bovis*. - Meningeal worm (*Parelaphostrongylus tenuis*) presents with neurological signs such as hind limb weakness, head tilt, or paralysis in aberrant hosts like elk and moose, necessitating pasture management to reduce white-tailed deer exposure and potential prophylactic deworming. - Vaccination programs, often utilizing extra-label products, should be tailored by a veterinarian, considering core vaccines for clostridial diseases and leptospirosis, with meticulous record-keeping of vaccine type, serial number, dose, route, and date for each administration. - Biosecurity protocols, including a minimum 30-day quarantine for new animals, visitor and vehicle management, and equipment sanitation, are critical to prevent the introduction and spread of diseases like CWD and TB. --- Daily health observation and a planned disease prevention program form the foundation of successful cervid farming. This article provides deer, elk, and bison farmers with practical protocols for monitoring herd health, recognizing early signs of reportable diseases such as chronic wasting disease (CWD), tuberculosis (TB), and meningeal worm, and implementing vaccination schedules and preventive measures. The guidance is based on official resources from the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), and the USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS). Use this information to build your own herd health plan, train staff, and know when to escalate concerns to a veterinarian or regulatory authority. ## At a Glance: Cervid Health Observation and Disease Prevention | Observation or Action | Frequency | Key Signs or Purpose | Escalation Criteria | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Daily visual health check | Every feeding | Alertness, appetite, gait, coat condition, nasal or ocular discharge, fecal consistency | Any animal showing dullness, isolation, drooling, staggering, or weight loss for more than 24 hours | | [Body condition scoring](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/body-condition-scoring-a-tool-for-feed-management) | Monthly | Palpable fat cover over ribs and spine, visible muscle wasting | Score below 2 on a 5-point scale in any adult animal | | Fecal egg count monitoring | Quarterly or per veterinarian advice | Parasite burden, especially meningeal worm risk in deer and elk | Counts exceeding regional thresholds or clinical signs of neurologic disease | | CWD surveillance testing | Annually or per state regulations | Mandatory testing of harvested or dead adult animals | Any positive result requires immediate state veterinary authority notification | | TB testing | Per state or herd accreditation program | Intradermal tuberculin test in bison and elk | Any reactor animal requires quarantine and confirmatory testing | | Vaccination program review | Twice yearly | Review vaccine types, storage, expiration, and administration records | Missed boosters, expired vaccines, or adverse reactions | | Biosecurity audit | Quarterly | Visitor log, equipment disinfection, fence integrity, quarantine area use | Any breach of quarantine protocol or introduction of untested animals | ## Daily Health Observation Protocol A systematic daily health check is the most effective tool for early disease detection. Observe each animal at the same time each day, ideally during feeding when animals are most active and approachable. Stand quietly at a distance for several minutes before moving closer. Record any animal that does not come to feed, stands apart from the group, or shows abnormal posture or movement. ### Observation Sequence Start with a general assessment of the herd from a distance. Look for animals that are lying down when others are standing, animals that are slow to rise, or animals that are isolated from the group. Then move to closer observation of individual animals that appear abnormal. Use binoculars if necessary to avoid disturbing the herd. Check the following in order: - **Appetite and feeding behavior**: Does the animal approach feed promptly? Does it chew and swallow normally? Reduced appetite is often the first sign of illness. - **Gait and posture**: Watch for lameness, stiffness, head tilt, circling, or inability to rise. These signs can indicate injury, arthritis, or neurologic disease. - **Coat and skin**: Look for rough hair coat, hair loss, lumps, swellings, or wounds. A dull or staring coat can indicate chronic disease or poor nutrition. - **Eyes and nose**: Check for discharge, cloudiness, or swelling. Clear discharge may be normal, but thick or colored discharge suggests infection. - **Respiration**: Count breaths per minute at rest. Normal rates vary by species and ambient temperature, but labored breathing, coughing, or open-mouth breathing are abnormal. - **Fecal consistency**: Note diarrhea, constipation, or mucus in feces. Scours in young animals require immediate attention. - **Body condition**: Assess fat cover over the ribs, spine, and hips. Use a standardized body condition scoring system. ### Recording Observations Use a simple daily log with columns for date, animal ID, observation, and action taken. Record any animal that deviates from normal, even if the deviation seems minor. Patterns of minor abnormalities can signal an emerging problem. Keep records for at least three years to support herd health planning and regulatory compliance. ## Recognizing Signs of Reportable Diseases Several diseases in cervids are reportable to state or federal authorities. Early recognition and prompt reporting can prevent spread and protect herd health. The following sections describe key signs for the most important reportable diseases in deer, elk, and bison. ### Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) CWD is a fatal neurologic disease of deer, elk, and moose caused by a prion. It has a long incubation period, often years, and clinical signs appear late in the disease course. The USDA APHIS Cervid Health program provides guidance on CWD surveillance and management [1]. Clinical signs of CWD include: - Progressive weight loss despite normal appetite - Excessive salivation or drooling - Increased drinking and urination - Listlessness, depression, or isolation from the herd - Stumbling, tremors, or incoordination - Head tremors or holding the head in an abnormal position - Teeth grinding - Repeated walking in circles or along fence lines No treatment exists for CWD. Any animal showing these signs should be isolated immediately and reported to the state veterinarian. Testing of dead adult animals is the primary surveillance method. Follow your state's CWD testing requirements for harvested or dead animals. ### Tuberculosis (TB) [Bovine tuberculosis](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/bovine-tuberculosis-diagnostic-tools-wildlife-reservoirs) can infect deer, elk, and bison. It is caused by *Mycobacterium bovis* and is a zoonotic disease. The USDA APHIS and state animal health officials manage TB eradication programs for captive cervids. Clinical signs of TB include: - Chronic cough that worsens over weeks to months - Progressive weight loss - Lethargy and reduced appetite - Enlarged lymph nodes, especially under the jaw - Difficulty breathing in advanced cases Many infected animals show no clinical signs until late in the disease. Routine TB testing is required for herd accreditation and interstate movement. Any animal that reacts to the intradermal tuberculin test must be quarantined and reported to the state veterinarian. ### Meningeal Worm Meningeal worm (*Parelaphostrongylus tenuis*) is a parasite that affects deer, elk, and moose. White-tailed deer are the normal host and usually show no signs. Elk, mule deer, and moose are aberrant hosts and can develop severe neurologic disease. Clinical signs in affected animals include: - Hind limb weakness or ataxia - Head tilt or circling - Blindness - Paralysis - Weight loss due to inability to feed Diagnosis is based on clinical signs, history of exposure to white-tailed deer, and response to treatment. Fecal examination for larvae is not reliable in aberrant hosts. Prevention focuses on reducing exposure to white-tailed deer and managing pasture contamination. ## Vaccination Program Planning A vaccination program should be developed with your veterinarian based on local disease risks, species, age, and production goals. No single vaccine schedule fits all cervid operations. The following guidance is based on general principles and available resources. ### Core Vaccines for Cervids Vaccines used in cervids are often extra-label because few vaccines are specifically licensed for deer, elk, or bison. Work with your veterinarian to select products and determine appropriate doses and routes of administration. The FDA Center for [Veterinary Medicine](/blog/careers/veterinary-medicine-careers-from-clinical-practice-to-public-health) provides resources on animal drug use and extra-label drug use [7]. Common vaccines considered for cervid herds include: - **Clostridial vaccines**: Protect against enterotoxemia and blackleg. Usually given to young animals and boostered annually. - **Leptospirosis vaccines**: Protect against reproductive losses. Given to breeding females before breeding season. - **Brucellosis vaccines**: Used in bison in some regions. The *Vaccination strategies for managing brucellosis in Yellowstone bison* study describes approaches for bison vaccination [8]. - **Respiratory disease vaccines**: May include protection against *[Mannheimia haemolytica](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/mannheimia-haemolytica)* and *Pasteurella multocida*. ### Vaccination Schedule Considerations Develop a written vaccination schedule that includes: - **Species and age groups**: Calves, yearlings, adults, and breeding animals may have different vaccine needs. - **Timing**: Vaccinate at least two to four weeks before expected disease exposure or stress periods such as weaning, transport, or breeding. - **Booster intervals**: Follow label directions or veterinarian advice for booster timing. - **Route of administration**: Subcutaneous, intramuscular, or intranasal routes vary by vaccine. - **Storage and handling**: Most vaccines require refrigeration and protection from light. Discard expired or improperly stored vaccines. Record each vaccination event in a herd health record with vaccine name, serial number, dose, route, date, and animal identification. ### Limitations of Vaccination Vaccination is one component of disease prevention, not a substitute for biosecurity, nutrition, and good management. Vaccines may not provide complete protection, especially in stressed or immunocompromised animals. Some vaccines require annual boosters to maintain immunity. Adverse reactions, though rare, can occur. Monitor animals for 30 minutes after vaccination and report any reactions to your veterinarian. ## Biosecurity Measures for Disease Prevention Biosecurity refers to practices that prevent the introduction and spread of disease within a herd. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare that include biosecurity guidance [5]. ### Quarantine Protocol All new animals entering the herd should be quarantined for a minimum of 30 days. Longer quarantine periods may be needed for diseases with longer incubation periods, such as CWD or TB. Quarantine requirements: - Separate facility at least 100 meters from the main herd - Dedicated equipment and footwear for quarantine area - Testing for relevant diseases before release into the main herd - Observation for clinical signs during the entire quarantine period - No contact between quarantine animals and the main herd through fences or shared water sources ### Visitor and Vehicle Management Restrict access to the farm. Maintain a visitor log that records name, date, purpose of visit, and previous animal contact. Provide disposable boots and coveralls for visitors. Require vehicles to park in designated areas away from animal pens. Disinfect vehicle tires if they have been on other farms. ### Equipment and Facility Sanitation Clean and disinfect equipment between groups of animals. Use a disinfectant effective against the target pathogens. Common disinfectants include diluted bleach, accelerated hydrogen peroxide, and quaternary ammonium compounds. Follow label directions for concentration and contact time. Maintain fences to prevent contact with wild cervids. Wild deer and elk can carry CWD, TB, and parasites. Double fencing or electric fencing may be needed in high-risk areas. ## Nutrition and Body Condition Monitoring Nutrition directly affects immune function and disease resistance. Body condition scoring is a practical tool for assessing nutritional status. ### Body Condition Scoring System Use a 5-point scale where: - **Score 1**: Emaciated. No fat cover over ribs, spine, or hips. Muscle wasting visible. - **Score 2**: Thin. Ribs and spine easily felt with little fat cover. Some muscle wasting. - **Score 3**: Moderate. Ribs and spine felt with slight fat cover. Good muscle mass. - **Score 4**: Fat. Ribs and spine difficult to feel. Fat deposits over tailhead and brisket. - **Score 5**: Obese. Heavy fat cover. Ribs and spine cannot be felt. Score animals monthly and adjust feed rations accordingly. Target a body condition score of 3 for most adult animals. Scores below 2 require immediate veterinary assessment. ### Feed Quality and Storage Provide a balanced ration appropriate for species, age, and production stage. Forage quality should be tested annually. Store feed in dry, rodent-proof containers. Moldy or spoiled feed can cause mycotoxin poisoning and reduce feed intake. Provide clean, fresh water at all times. Water sources should be cleaned regularly to prevent algae growth and bacterial contamination. ## Parasite Control Program Internal and external parasites can reduce growth, reproduction, and disease resistance. A targeted parasite control program based on fecal egg counts is more effective and sustainable than routine deworming. ### Fecal Egg Count Monitoring Collect fresh fecal samples from at least 10 percent of the herd or from animals showing signs of parasitism. Submit samples to a diagnostic laboratory for fecal egg count and larval identification. Results guide deworming decisions and product selection. ### Deworming Strategy Use dewormers only when fecal egg counts exceed treatment thresholds. Rotate dewormer classes to reduce resistance. Record the product, dose, route, and date for each treatment. For meningeal worm prevention in elk and mule deer, work with your veterinarian to determine if prophylactic deworming is appropriate based on local risk. ### Pasture Management Rotate pastures to break parasite life cycles. Rest pastures for at least 30 days between grazing periods. Avoid overstocking, which increases parasite contamination. Remove manure from pens and paddocks regularly. ## Records and Measurements Accurate records support disease surveillance, treatment decisions, and regulatory compliance. Maintain the following records for each animal or group. ### Individual Animal Records - Unique identification (ear tag, tattoo, or microchip) - Date of birth - Sex - Species and breed - Dam and sire identification - Vaccination history - Disease and treatment history - Test results (CWD, TB, brucellosis) - Body condition scores - Weight records ### Herd-Level Records - Daily health observation log - Mortality and morbidity rates - Feed consumption and ration changes - Biosecurity audit results - Visitor log - Quarantine records - Veterinary consultation reports ### Record Retention Keep records for at least three years. Some regulatory programs require longer retention. Store records in a secure, accessible location. Digital records with backup are recommended. ## Common Failure Patterns in Disease Prevention Even well-managed herds can experience disease outbreaks. Recognizing common failure patterns helps prevent recurrence. ### Failure Pattern 1: Incomplete Quarantine The most common biosecurity failure is incomplete quarantine. Animals may be released before the quarantine period ends, or quarantine facilities may allow nose-to-nose contact through fences. Ensure quarantine facilities are truly separate and that all personnel follow protocols. ### Failure Pattern 2: Delayed Recognition of Clinical Signs Early signs of disease are often subtle. Busy schedules or inadequate training can lead to missed observations. Assign one person to conduct daily health checks and provide training on what to look for. ### Failure Pattern 3: Inconsistent Vaccination Missed boosters, expired vaccines, or improper storage reduce vaccine effectiveness. Designate one person to manage the vaccine inventory and schedule. Use a calendar or reminder system. ### Failure Pattern 4: Overreliance on Dewormers Routine deworming without fecal egg count monitoring selects for resistant parasites. Implement a targeted treatment program based on diagnostic testing. ### Failure Pattern 5: Poor Nutrition Underfeeding or feeding unbalanced rations weakens immune function. Test forage and balance rations at least twice yearly. Monitor body condition scores monthly. ## Welfare and Safety Context Disease prevention is directly linked to animal welfare. Sick animals experience pain, distress, and reduced quality of life. Early detection and treatment minimize suffering. The FAO Animal Production and Health program emphasizes the importance of preventive health care for livestock welfare [4]. ### Worker Safety Some cervid diseases are zoonotic. Tuberculosis, brucellosis, and leptospirosis can infect humans. Use personal protective equipment when handling sick animals, performing necropsies, or cleaning contaminated areas. Gloves, boots, coveralls, and eye protection are recommended. ### Euthanasia Criteria Develop written criteria for euthanasia with your veterinarian. Animals that are non-ambulatory, severely emaciated, or showing advanced neurologic signs should be euthanized promptly to prevent suffering. Use approved methods that cause immediate loss of consciousness. ### Regulatory Compliance Follow all state and federal regulations for disease testing, movement, and reporting. The USDA APHIS Cervid Health program provides information on regulatory requirements [1]. Failure to report a reportable disease can result in fines and herd movement restrictions. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Know when to call a veterinarian or state animal health official. The following situations require professional involvement: - Any animal showing signs of CWD, TB, or other reportable disease - Sudden death of multiple animals - High morbidity or mortality rates - Animals that do not respond to treatment within 48 hours - Adverse reactions to vaccines or medications - Positive test results for reportable diseases - Need for diagnostic testing or necropsy - Development of a herd health plan or vaccination schedule Contact your veterinarian first for most situations. For reportable diseases, also contact your state veterinarian or USDA APHIS area office. ## Practical Decision Framework for Managing Suspect Disease Cases When a cervid shows abnormal signs during daily observation, the farmer must make rapid, evidence-based decisions that balance animal welfare, herd biosecurity, and regulatory compliance. This section provides a structured decision framework for managing suspect disease cases from initial detection through resolution. The framework is designed to be used alongside the daily health observation protocol and professional escalation criteria described in this article. ### Decision Point 1: Initial Assessment and Triage When an animal deviates from normal, begin with a systematic triage assessment within two hours of detection. Use the following criteria to determine urgency: **Immediate isolation required (red category):** - Any neurologic sign: head tilt, circling, incoordination, tremors, paralysis - Profuse diarrhea or blood in feces - Open-mouth breathing or labored respiration - Inability to rise or stand - Sudden death of any animal in the same pen **Observation with enhanced monitoring (yellow category):** - Reduced appetite but still eating - Mild lameness or stiffness - Clear nasal or ocular discharge - Slight weight loss over one to two weeks - Isolated animal that still comes to feed **Routine monitoring (green category):** - Normal behavior with minor coat changes - Slight body condition score change within normal range - Single animal lying down during rest period For red category cases, isolate the animal immediately in a designated hospital pen at least 50 meters from the main herd. Use dedicated boots and equipment for the isolation area. Contact your veterinarian within four hours. For yellow category cases, increase observation frequency to three times daily and record all changes. For green category cases, continue routine daily observation and note the finding in the daily log. ### Decision Point 2: Diagnostic Testing Decision After initial triage, decide whether diagnostic testing is needed. Use the following criteria to guide this decision: **Test immediately:** - Any sign consistent with CWD, TB, or other reportable disease - Multiple animals showing similar signs within seven days - Animal from a known high-risk source or with unknown health history - Animal that fails to improve within 48 hours of supportive care **Test within one week:** - Single animal with mild, non-specific signs that persist beyond three days - Animal with body condition score drop of one point or more in one month - Animal with chronic cough lasting more than two weeks **Monitor without testing:** - Single animal with mild signs that resolve within 48 hours - Signs clearly attributable to injury or environmental cause When testing is indicated, collect samples according to your veterinarian's instructions. For CWD surveillance, follow your state's testing protocols for live or dead animals. The USDA APHIS Cervid Health program provides guidance on sample submission and testing requirements [1]. For TB testing, schedule an intradermal tuberculin test through your accredited veterinarian. For parasite testing, collect fresh fecal samples from at least 10 percent of the affected group. ### Decision Point 3: Treatment or Euthanasia Decision Once diagnostic results are available or if the animal's condition deteriorates, decide between treatment and euthanasia. Use the following criteria: **Treatment appropriate:** - Bacterial infection responsive to antibiotics - Parasitic infection with available effective dewormers - Minor injury or wound - Metabolic condition such as rumen acidosis - Animal with good body condition and no chronic disease history **Euthanasia recommended:** - Positive test for CWD or TB - Advanced neurologic signs with no treatment available - Non-ambulatory animal for more than 24 hours - Severe emaciation with body condition score below 1.5 - Animal with chronic disease that has not responded to treatment after two weeks - Fracture or injury with poor prognosis for recovery For treatment cases, document the product, dose, route, frequency, and duration. Monitor the animal twice daily and record response. If no improvement occurs within 48 hours, consult your veterinarian again. For euthanasia cases, use approved methods that cause immediate loss of consciousness. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on humane euthanasia methods for livestock [5]. Record the date, method, and reason for euthanasia in the herd health record. ### Decision Point 4: Herd-Level Response After managing the individual case, implement a herd-level response based on the diagnosis: **For reportable disease confirmation:** - Quarantine the affected pen or entire herd as directed by state veterinarian - Conduct trace-back and trace-forward investigations - Increase surveillance testing of all contact animals - Implement enhanced biosecurity measures - Follow all regulatory requirements for movement restrictions and depopulation if ordered **For infectious disease with treatment options:** - Treat all affected animals in the same pen - Implement group-level biosecurity measures - Increase observation frequency for all contact animals - Review vaccination and prevention protocols - Test a sample of the herd to determine infection prevalence **For non-infectious conditions:** - Review nutrition, environment, and management practices - Correct identified risk factors - Monitor for recurrence in other animals - Document lessons learned for future prevention ### Record System for Decision Tracking Maintain a structured record for each suspect disease case. Use a standardized form with the following fields: - Date and time of initial detection - Animal identification and pen location - Clinical signs observed - Triage category (red, yellow, green) - Veterinarian contact date and time - Diagnostic tests ordered and results - Treatment administered or euthanasia performed - Outcome and date of resolution - Herd-level actions taken - Follow-up monitoring schedule Store these records with the daily health observation log. Review all suspect disease cases quarterly to identify patterns and improve prevention protocols. The FAO Animal Production and Health program emphasizes the importance of record keeping for disease surveillance and herd health management [4]. ### Common Failure Patterns in Decision Making Farmers commonly make errors at each decision point. Recognize these patterns to improve your response: **Failure Pattern 1: Delayed isolation.** Waiting to see if the animal improves before isolating allows disease to spread. Isolate any animal with red category signs immediately, even if the cause is unknown. **Failure Pattern 2: Incomplete diagnostic testing.** Skipping tests to save money can lead to missed diagnoses and continued disease spread. Test according to the criteria above, especially for reportable diseases. **Failure Pattern 3: Prolonged treatment of untreatable conditions.** Continuing treatment for animals with advanced CWD or TB signs prolongs suffering and increases disease transmission risk. Use the euthanasia criteria to make timely decisions. **Failure Pattern 4: Inadequate herd-level response.** Treating individual cases without addressing herd-level risk factors leads to recurrence. Always implement herd-level actions after any disease event. **Failure Pattern 5: Poor record keeping.** Failing to document decisions and outcomes reduces the ability to learn from disease events. Use the standardized record system for every suspect case. ### Professional Escalation Criteria for Decision Framework Escalate to your veterinarian or state animal health official at any decision point if: - You are uncertain about the triage category - Diagnostic test results are unclear or unexpected - The animal does not respond to treatment within 48 hours - Multiple animals develop similar signs within seven days - You need guidance on euthanasia methods or disposal - A reportable disease is confirmed or strongly suspected The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides resources on animal production and protection that include disease management strategies [6]. Use these resources alongside your veterinarian's guidance to refine your decision framework over time. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How often should I conduct a full herd health check? Conduct a visual health check of the entire herd at least once daily, ideally during feeding. A more thorough examination including body condition scoring and fecal sampling should be done monthly. Record all observations in a daily log. ### What are the first signs of chronic wasting disease in elk? Early signs of CWD in elk include progressive weight loss despite normal appetite, excessive salivation, increased drinking and urination, and subtle changes in behavior such as isolation from the herd or reduced responsiveness. These signs appear late in the disease course, often years after infection. ### Can bison be vaccinated for brucellosis? Yes, bison can be vaccinated for brucellosis. The *Vaccination strategies for managing brucellosis in Yellowstone bison* study describes approaches for bison vaccination [8]. Work with your veterinarian and state animal health officials to determine if vaccination is appropriate for your herd. ### How do I prevent meningeal worm in my elk herd? Prevention focuses on reducing exposure to white-tailed deer, which are the normal host for the parasite. Maintain double fencing or electric fencing to prevent deer contact. Manage pastures to reduce snail and slug populations, which are intermediate hosts. Work with your veterinarian to determine if prophylactic deworming is needed. ### What records should I keep for my cervid operation? Maintain individual animal records including identification, birth date, vaccination history, disease and treatment history, test results, and body condition scores. Keep herd-level records including daily health observation logs, mortality and morbidity rates, feed records, biosecurity audit results, and visitor logs. Retain records for at least three years. ### How long should new animals be quarantined? Quarantine new animals for a minimum of 30 days. Longer quarantine periods may be needed for diseases with longer incubation periods, such as CWD or TB. Test for relevant diseases before releasing animals into the main herd. ### What should I do if I suspect a reportable disease? Isolate the affected animal immediately. Contact your veterinarian and state veterinarian or USDA APHIS area office. Do not move animals on or off the farm until you receive guidance. Follow all regulatory requirements for testing and reporting. ### How do I choose the right vaccine for my herd? Work with your veterinarian to select vaccines based on local disease risks, species, age, and production goals. Consider core vaccines for clostridial diseases, leptospirosis, and respiratory diseases. Use vaccines according to label directions or veterinarian advice for extra-label use. Record all vaccinations in herd health records. ## Related Farming Guides - [Computer Vision Livestock Health Welfare Observation](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/computer-vision-livestock-health-welfare-observation) - [Farm Health Intelligence Observation Records Biosecurity Diagnostics And Veterinary Escalation](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/farm-health-intelligence-observation-records-biosecurity-diagnostics-and-veterinary-escalation) - [Livestock Health Key Performance Indicators](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-health-key-performance-indicators) - [Livestock On Farm Processing Regulations Equipment Business Planning](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-on-farm-processing-regulations-equipment-business-planning) - [Livestock Marketing Direct Sales](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-marketing-direct-sales) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Water Buffalo Genetic Improvement and Breeding Programs](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-genetic-improvement-breeding-programs) * [Camel Farm Biosecurity: Disease Prevention and Quarantine Protocols](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-farm-biosecurity-disease-prevention-quarantine-protocols) * [Water Buffalo Farm Equipment and Infrastructure](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-farm-equipment-infrastructure) ## References and Further Reading - [www.aphis.usda.gov](https://www.aphis.usda.gov/livestock-poultry-disease/cervid) - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). USDA Agricultural Research Service. - [Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. - [Vaccination strategies for managing brucellosis in Yellowstone bison](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vaccine.2010.03.055). Vaccine, 2010. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.