# Camel Water Access and Hydration Management: Drinking Systems and Drought Strategies ## Key Takeaways - Camel water intake varies significantly, ranging from 20-40 liters daily for non-lactating animals on dry feed to over 60 liters for lactating females in hot conditions, necessitating monitoring of individual drinking behavior and group consumption records. - Drinking system design requires troughs offering 0.5-1 meter of linear space per camel and a depth of 30-40 cm, or automatic waterers with a flow rate of at least 10-15 liters per minute, with placement away from feeding areas to prevent contamination. - Water quality testing, conducted at least quarterly, must assess total dissolved solids (TDS) below 3,000 mg/L, pH between 6.5-8.5, salinity below 4,000 mg/L, and absence of E. coli, with field kits for rapid assessment and laboratory analysis for comprehensive evaluation. - Drought contingency planning involves assessing water source reliability, establishing trigger points for action (e.g., well yield decrease), defining rationing protocols with priority for lactating and young animals, and maintaining emergency water reserves equivalent to at least one week of herd consumption. - Hydration monitoring relies on observing clinical signs such as skin tenting persistence exceeding 2-3 seconds, dry mucous membranes, and reduced urination frequency, with a veterinarian consulted if dehydration persists despite adequate water access or if intake drops by over 50%. --- Camel farmers in drylands must ensure adequate water supply and manage hydration during drought by designing drinking systems that match camel physiology, testing water quality regularly, and implementing drought contingency plans. This article covers camel water intake needs, drinking system design (troughs, automatic waterers), water quality testing, and drought contingency planning. Practical management decisions, observations, records, limitations, and professional-escalation criteria are provided throughout. ## At a Glance: Camel Water Access and Hydration Management | Aspect | Key Consideration | Practical Action | |--------|-------------------|------------------| | Daily water intake | Camels drink 20-60 liters per day depending on temperature, lactation, and feed moisture | Provide troughs sized for herd size, monitor individual drinking behavior | | Drinking system type | Troughs suit large herds, automatic waterers reduce labor but require maintenance | Choose based on herd size, water source reliability, and labor availability | | Water quality testing | Test for salinity, pH, total dissolved solids, and bacterial contamination at least quarterly | Use field test kits for rapid assessment, send samples to lab for comprehensive analysis | | Drought contingency | Plan for reduced water availability, identify alternative sources and rationing protocols | Develop written drought plan with trigger points for action, maintain emergency water reserves | | Hydration monitoring | Observe skin tenting, mucous membrane moisture, and urination frequency | Train staff to recognize early dehydration signs, keep daily records | | Professional escalation | Consult veterinarian if dehydration persists despite water access, test water source if quality suspected | Contact local veterinary authority or extension service for guidance | ## Camel Water Intake Requirements Camels have evolved to tolerate significant water loss, but they still require regular access to clean water for optimal health and productivity. Water intake varies with environmental temperature, feed moisture content, lactation stage, and individual animal condition. During hot dry conditions, a lactating camel may drink more than 60 liters per day. Non-lactating camels on dry feed typically consume 20-40 liters daily. Farmers should observe individual drinking behavior during daily checks. Camels that drink less than usual or take longer to finish drinking may be ill or stressed. Record water consumption per group or pen to detect changes early. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en) resources note that water availability directly affects feed intake and body condition in livestock. Water intake also depends on feed moisture. Camels grazing on lush pasture may drink less than those fed dry hay or concentrate. Adjust water provision accordingly. In hot weather, provide shade near drinking points to encourage adequate intake. ### Factors That Increase Water Requirements Several conditions raise daily water needs beyond baseline levels. Lactating camels require additional water for milk production, often increasing intake by 30-50 percent. High ambient temperatures above 40 degrees Celsius cause camels to drink more to compensate for evaporative cooling. Working camels or those undergoing transport also need increased water access. Monitor these high-risk groups more frequently. Provide additional drinking points near shade or resting areas for lactating females. During heat waves, offer water at least three times daily instead of once or twice. ### Factors That Decrease Water Intake Water intake can drop below expected levels due to illness, stress, or water quality problems. Camels with digestive upset, fever, or pain may drink less. Social stress from mixing groups or introducing new animals can also reduce drinking behavior. If water intake drops suddenly, check water temperature and quality first. Camels may refuse water that is too hot, too cold, or contaminated. If water quality is acceptable, observe for signs of illness and consult a veterinarian if intake does not improve within 24 hours. ## Drinking System Design ### Trough Systems Troughs are the most common drinking system for camel herds. They must be large enough to allow multiple animals to drink simultaneously without crowding. A typical trough should provide 0.5-1 meter of linear drinking space per camel. Trough depth should be 30-40 centimeters to allow camels to submerge their muzzles comfortably. Materials for troughs include concrete, galvanized steel, or food-grade plastic. Concrete troughs are durable but can crack in freezing conditions. Galvanized steel resists corrosion but may heat up in direct sun. Plastic troughs are lightweight and easy to clean but may degrade under UV exposure. Place troughs on level ground with good drainage to prevent mud accumulation. Position them away from feeding areas to reduce feed contamination of water. Clean troughs weekly by scrubbing with a brush and rinsing thoroughly. Remove algae, debris, and sediment that can harbor bacteria. ### Automatic Waterers Automatic waterers reduce labor by maintaining a constant water level. They are suitable for smaller herds or individual pens. Choose models designed for livestock with large drinking bowls and float valves that can deliver water at a rate of at least 10-15 liters per minute. Install automatic waterers in shaded areas to keep water cool. Check float valves weekly for proper operation. Clean the bowl and valve mechanism monthly to prevent mineral buildup. In freezing climates, use heated automatic waterers or insulate pipes to maintain water flow. Automatic waterers require reliable water pressure and quality. If water contains high sediment, install a filter before the waterer. The [USDA Agricultural Research Service Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection) program provides information on water system design for livestock operations. ### Water Delivery and Storage Water delivery systems include pipelines, hoses, and tanks. Use pipes sized to deliver adequate flow for the herd. A 50-millimeter diameter pipe can deliver approximately 200 liters per minute over short distances. For longer runs, increase pipe diameter to maintain pressure. Storage tanks should hold at least two days of water supply for the herd. Calculate total daily herd consumption and multiply by two. For a herd of 50 camels drinking 50 liters each per day, storage capacity should be at least 5,000 liters. Tanks should be covered to prevent contamination from birds, dust, and sunlight. Clean tanks annually by draining, scrubbing, and disinfecting with a livestock-safe sanitizer. Inspect tanks for cracks or leaks quarterly. ### Drinking Point Placement and Spacing Place drinking points in locations that camels can access easily without traveling long distances. In large paddocks or rangeland systems, provide water points within 5-10 kilometers of grazing areas. For confined systems, place troughs or waterers within 50 meters of shade or shelter. Space multiple drinking points at least 10 meters apart to reduce competition and allow subordinate animals to drink. In hot weather, provide additional temporary troughs to reduce crowding. Monitor drinking behavior during peak hours to ensure all animals have access. ## Water Quality Testing ### Key Parameters Water quality directly affects camel health and productivity. Test water at least quarterly for the following parameters: - Total dissolved solids (TDS): Levels below 1,000 mg/L are excellent, 1,000-3,000 mg/L are acceptable for camels, above 5,000 mg/L may cause reduced intake and health issues. - pH: Optimal range is 6.5-8.5. Water outside this range may indicate contamination or mineral imbalance. - Salinity: Camels tolerate higher salinity than other livestock, but levels above 4,000 mg/L may reduce water intake. - Bacterial contamination: Test for total coliforms and E. coli. Any detection of E. coli indicates fecal contamination. - Nitrates: Levels above 10 mg/L nitrogen may be toxic, especially for young camels. ### Testing Methods Field test kits provide rapid assessment of TDS, pH, and salinity. Use colorimetric test strips for nitrate and bacterial screening. For comprehensive analysis, send water samples to a certified laboratory. Collect water samples from the drinking point, not from the source. Use clean, sterile containers. Label samples with date, location, and source. Transport samples to the laboratory within 24 hours, keeping them cool. The [USDA National Agricultural Library Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare) resources include guidelines for water quality testing in livestock operations. ### Interpreting Results Compare test results to established guidelines for [livestock water quality](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/water-quality-livestock-testing-treatment). If TDS exceeds 3,000 mg/L, consider providing alternative water sources or diluting with lower-salinity water. If bacterial contamination is detected, clean and disinfect the drinking system immediately. Retest after cleaning to confirm resolution. If water quality problems persist, consult a water quality specialist or extension agent. They can help identify the source of contamination and recommend treatment options such as filtration, chlorination, or aeration. ### Seasonal Water Quality Changes Water quality can change with seasons. In dry seasons, evaporation concentrates minerals and salts in surface water sources. After heavy rains, runoff can introduce sediment, fertilizers, or fecal contamination. Test water more frequently during seasonal transitions. After the first heavy rain of the season, test for bacterial contamination. During prolonged dry periods, monitor TDS and salinity monthly. Adjust management based on results. ## Drought Contingency Planning ### Assessing Water Availability Drought reduces surface water and groundwater availability. Farmers must assess their water sources regularly during dry periods. Monitor well water levels monthly. Measure stream flow or pond depth weekly. Record these measurements to track trends. Identify alternative water sources before drought occurs. Options include deeper wells, water hauling from municipal sources, or agreements with neighboring farms. The [FAO](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) Domestic Animal Diversity Information System provides resources on livestock management in challenging environments. ### Developing a Drought Plan A written drought plan should include: - Trigger points for action: For example, when pond depth drops below 1 meter or well yield decreases by 30 percent. - Water rationing protocols: Determine how much water each group of camels will receive if supply is limited. - Priority groups: Lactating females, young camels, and sick animals should receive water first. - Emergency water sources: Identify and test alternative sources before they are needed. - Communication plan: Inform staff and neighbors about water restrictions and emergency procedures. Review and update the drought plan annually before the dry season. Practice implementing rationing protocols with staff. ### Emergency Water Storage Maintain emergency water reserves for at least one week of herd consumption. Use food-grade tanks or drums. Store water in a cool, dark place to prevent algae growth. Rotate stored water every six months by using it for routine watering and refilling. If hauling water, ensure transport tanks are clean and dedicated to water use only. Disinfect tanks between loads if they have been used for other purposes. ### Reducing Water Demand During Drought During drought, reduce herd water demand by adjusting management practices. Move camels to shaded areas during the hottest part of the day. Reduce walking distances to water points. Feed higher-moisture feeds such as silage or fresh forage if available. Cull non-essential animals early in the drought to reduce overall water demand. Sell or move animals that are not needed for breeding or production before water shortages become severe. ## Hydration Monitoring ### Observing Dehydration Signs Camels can lose up to 25 percent of their body weight in water without apparent distress, but dehydration still affects health and productivity. Train staff to recognize early signs: - Skin tenting: Pinch the skin on the neck or shoulder. If it does not return to normal within 2-3 seconds, the camel is dehydrated. - Mucous membrane moisture: Dry or sticky gums indicate dehydration. - Urination frequency: Camels that urinate less than 2-3 times per day may be dehydrated. - Sunken eyes: This is a sign of moderate to severe dehydration. - Reduced feed intake: Dehydrated camels eat less. Record these observations daily for each group. The [World Organisation for Animal Health](https://www.woah.org/) provides standards for animal health monitoring that apply to camel hydration assessment. ### Measuring Water Intake Measure water intake per group by installing water meters on supply lines. Record daily consumption. Compare to expected intake based on herd size, temperature, and production stage. A sudden drop in water intake may indicate illness or water quality problems. For individual monitoring, observe drinking behavior during watering. Camels that drink slowly, stop frequently, or refuse water may need veterinary attention. ### Rehydration Protocols When camels are dehydrated, provide water gradually to prevent overdrinking. Offer small amounts every 30 minutes for the first 2-3 hours. Monitor for signs of water intoxication such as bloating or staggering. For severely dehydrated camels, consult a veterinarian. Intravenous fluids may be necessary. The [U.S. Food and Drug Administration Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary) provides information on veterinary treatments for dehydration. ## Records and Measurements ### Daily Records Maintain daily records of: - Water consumption per group (liters) - Number of camels in each group - Temperature and weather conditions - Observations of drinking behavior - Any signs of dehydration or illness Use a simple logbook or spreadsheet. Record data at the same time each day for consistency. ### Weekly Records Weekly records should include: - Trough or waterer cleanliness inspection - Water quality test results (if using field kits) - Float valve or pump operation check - Storage tank water level ### Monthly Records Monthly records should include: - Comprehensive water quality test results - Well water level or stream flow measurements - Maintenance performed on drinking systems - Staff training on hydration monitoring ### Annual Records Annual records should include: - Drought plan review and update - Emergency water storage rotation - Laboratory water quality analysis - System upgrades or repairs Store records for at least three years. They are useful for identifying trends and justifying management decisions. ## Common Failure Patterns ### Inadequate Water Intake Camels may drink less than needed due to: - Water temperature too hot or too cold - Water quality problems such as high salinity or contamination - Crowding at drinking points - Illness or injury - Stress from handling or transport Address these issues by providing shade over waterers, testing water quality, increasing drinking space, and reducing stressors. ### System Failures Drinking systems can fail due to: - Pump breakdowns - Pipe leaks or blockages - Float valve sticking - Power outages for automatic systems - Freezing in cold weather Prevent failures through regular maintenance. Keep spare parts on hand. Have backup systems such as portable troughs or hoses. ### Water Quality Deterioration Water quality can decline due to: - Algae growth in tanks or troughs - Contamination from bird droppings or runoff - Mineral buildup in pipes - Bacterial growth in stagnant water Prevent deterioration by covering tanks, cleaning troughs weekly, and flushing pipes regularly. ### Behavioral Problems Social dynamics can prevent some camels from accessing water. [Dominant](/blog/careers/dominant-definition-biology) animals may guard water points and prevent subordinates from drinking. Young or newly introduced camels may be hesitant to approach unfamiliar waterers. Provide multiple drinking points spaced apart to reduce competition. Observe watering periods to ensure all animals drink. Separate aggressive individuals if necessary. ## Limitations and Professional Escalation ### When to Consult a Veterinarian Consult a veterinarian if: - Dehydration persists despite adequate water access - Multiple camels show signs of dehydration simultaneously - Camels refuse to drink for more than 24 hours - Water intake drops suddenly by more than 50 percent - Camels show neurological signs such as staggering or seizures The veterinarian can assess for underlying diseases such as trypanosomiasis or renal failure that affect hydration. ### When to Test Water Source Test the water source if: - Multiple camels develop diarrhea or digestive upset - Water intake decreases after a change in source - Water has unusual color, odor, or taste - Nearby water sources are known to be contaminated Contact a water quality specialist or extension agent for assistance with source testing and treatment. ### When to Seek Engineering Assistance Seek engineering assistance if: - Well yield is declining - Water pressure is insufficient for automatic systems - Pipes are corroding or leaking frequently - Storage tanks are inadequate for herd size A water systems engineer can design upgrades or alternative systems. ### When to Contact Regulatory Authorities Contact local agricultural or environmental authorities if: - Water contamination is suspected from industrial or agricultural runoff - Neighboring properties report similar water quality problems - Drought conditions require emergency water allocation - Water rights or access agreements need modification Regulatory authorities can provide guidance on legal obligations and available assistance programs. ## Comparing Drinking System Types: Troughs versus Automatic Waterers for Camel Herds Selecting the appropriate drinking system for a camel herd requires evaluating trade-offs between initial cost, labor requirements, maintenance demands, and suitability for different herd sizes and management systems. Troughs and automatic waterers each have distinct advantages and limitations that affect daily water intake, herd health, and operational efficiency. This section provides a structured comparison to help farmers make evidence-based decisions. ### Decision Framework for Drinking System Selection Use the following criteria to determine which system fits your operation. Evaluate each factor against your specific conditions before purchasing or installing equipment. **Herd size and density.** Troughs are better suited for herds larger than 30 camels because they allow multiple animals to drink simultaneously. Automatic waterers work well for smaller herds or individual pens where one or two camels drink at a time. For herds of 10-30 camels, either system can work depending on other factors. **Labor availability.** Troughs require daily visual inspection and weekly cleaning. Automatic waterers reduce daily labor but need monthly maintenance of float valves and bowls. If labor is scarce or expensive, automatic waterers may be more efficient. If labor is abundant and reliable, troughs offer simplicity. **Water source reliability.** Automatic waterers depend on consistent water pressure and flow. If your water source is intermittent or has variable pressure, troughs with manual filling are more reliable. Install a pressure tank or elevated storage if using automatic waterers with an unreliable source. **Climate conditions.** In freezing climates, automatic waterers require heated models or insulated pipes to prevent ice formation. Troughs can be drained and refilled as needed but may freeze solid in extreme cold. In hot climates, both systems need shade to keep water cool, but troughs with larger water volume stay cooler longer than small automatic waterer bowls. **Water quality.** If your water has high sediment or mineral content, automatic waterers may clog frequently. Install inline filters and clean valve mechanisms monthly. Troughs tolerate poorer water quality because sediment settles to the bottom and can be removed during cleaning. **Budget constraints.** Troughs have lower initial cost but higher ongoing labor costs. Automatic waterers have higher initial cost but lower labor costs over time. Calculate total cost of ownership over five years, including purchase, installation, maintenance, and labor. ### Comparison Table: Troughs versus Automatic Waterers | Factor | Troughs | Automatic Waterers | |--------|---------|-------------------| | Initial cost per drinking point | USD 100-500 depending on material and size | USD 300-800 depending on model and features | | Installation complexity | Low, requires level ground and drainage | Moderate, requires plumbing and pressure | | Daily labor requirement | 10-15 minutes for inspection and refilling | 5-10 minutes for inspection | | Cleaning frequency | Weekly scrubbing | Monthly bowl and valve cleaning | | Suitability for large herds | Excellent, multiple animals drink at once | Limited, one or two animals at a time | | Reliability with poor water quality | Good, sediment settles out | Poor, valves clog without filtration | | Freeze risk | High, water freezes in cold weather | Moderate, heated models available | | Water waste | Low if float valves are used | Low, animals drink only what they need | | Maintenance skill required | Basic | Moderate, requires understanding of valves and plumbing | ### Implementation Steps for System Selection **Step 1: Assess your herd and facilities.** Count the number of camels, measure available space for drinking points, and evaluate existing water supply infrastructure. Record water pressure and flow rate at the proposed installation site. **Step 2: Determine your primary constraint.** Identify whether labor, budget, water quality, or climate is the most limiting factor for your operation. Prioritize systems that address your main constraint. **Step 3: Calculate total cost of ownership.** Estimate purchase price, installation costs, annual maintenance, and labor hours for each system over five years. Use local labor rates and supplier quotes for accurate figures. **Step 4: Test the system before full installation.** Install one trough or automatic waterer and monitor camel acceptance for two weeks. Observe whether camels approach and drink readily. Check for any behavioral issues such as fear of the new equipment. **Step 5: Train staff on operation and maintenance.** Provide written instructions for daily checks, cleaning procedures, and troubleshooting common problems. Demonstrate proper cleaning and valve adjustment techniques. **Step 6: Monitor water intake after installation.** Record daily water consumption for the first month. Compare to expected intake based on herd size and environmental conditions. Adjust system settings or add additional drinking points if intake is lower than expected. ### Common Failure Patterns by System Type **Trough failures.** Troughs commonly fail due to cracks from freezing or UV degradation, algae buildup that reduces water palatability, and sediment accumulation that reduces effective volume. Concrete troughs may develop cracks that leak water. Plastic troughs may become brittle and crack after prolonged sun exposure. Galvanized steel troughs may rust at weld points. Prevent these failures by using reinforced concrete with expansion joints, choosing UV-stabilized plastic, and applying food-grade sealant to galvanized steel welds. Drain and scrub troughs monthly to remove algae and sediment. **Automatic waterer failures.** Automatic waterers commonly fail due to float valve sticking from mineral deposits, bowl cracking from freezing, and reduced flow from clogged filters or pipes. Float valves may fail open, causing continuous overflow and water waste. They may fail closed, preventing water delivery. Prevent these failures by installing inline filters, using heated models in freezing climates, and cleaning valve mechanisms monthly. Keep spare float valves and seals on hand for quick replacement. **System-wide failures.** Both systems can fail if the water supply is interrupted. Pump breakdowns, pipe leaks, or power outages can stop water delivery entirely. Maintain backup water storage of at least two days supply. Have portable troughs or hoses available for emergency watering. ### Records and Measurements for System Comparison Maintain records to evaluate system performance over time. Record the following data for each drinking system: - Daily water consumption in liters per group - Time spent on daily inspection and cleaning - Number of maintenance events per month - Cost of repairs and replacement parts - Any observed changes in camel drinking behavior or health Compare these records annually to determine whether your current system remains appropriate. If labor costs exceed initial projections or maintenance events increase, consider switching to the alternative system. ### Professional Escalation Criteria Consult a water systems engineer if: - Water pressure is below 20 psi at the drinking point - Pipe diameter is insufficient for peak flow demands - Automatic waterers fail repeatedly despite proper maintenance - Troughs develop structural cracks within one year of installation Consult a veterinarian if: - Camels refuse to drink from a new system for more than 24 hours - Water intake drops by more than 30 percent after system change - Multiple camels develop diarrhea or digestive upset after system installation The [USDA Agricultural Research Service Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection) program provides technical resources on livestock water system design that can help farmers troubleshoot persistent problems. The [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en) resources include guidance on water infrastructure for livestock in dryland environments. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How much water does a camel need per day? A non-lactating camel on dry feed typically drinks 20-40 liters per day. Lactating camels and those in hot conditions may drink 40-60 liters or more. Water intake varies with temperature, feed moisture, and individual condition. ### Can camels drink saline water? Camels tolerate higher salinity than other livestock, but water with total dissolved solids above 5,000 mg/L may reduce intake and cause health issues. Test water salinity regularly and provide alternative sources if levels are high. ### How often should I clean camel water troughs? Clean troughs at least weekly by scrubbing with a brush and rinsing thoroughly. Remove algae, debris, and sediment. In hot weather or when water quality is poor, clean more frequently. ### What are the signs of dehydration in camels? Signs include skin tenting that persists for more than 2-3 seconds, dry mucous membranes, reduced urination, sunken eyes, and decreased feed intake. Train staff to recognize these signs during daily checks. ### How do I test water quality for camels? Use field test kits for total dissolved solids, pH, salinity, and bacterial screening. Send samples to a certified laboratory for comprehensive analysis at least annually. Test more frequently if water quality problems are suspected. ### What should I include in a drought contingency plan? Include trigger points for action, water rationing protocols, priority groups for water access, emergency water sources, and a communication plan. Review and update the plan annually before the dry season. ### Can automatic waterers work for camels? Yes, automatic waterers can work for camels if they have large drinking bowls and deliver water at a rate of at least 10-15 liters per minute. Install them in shaded areas and maintain them regularly. ### When should I call a veterinarian about camel hydration? Call a veterinarian if dehydration persists despite water access, multiple camels show dehydration signs, camels refuse to drink for more than 24 hours, or water intake drops suddenly by more than 50 percent. ## Related Farming Guides - [Dairy Calf Colostrum Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-calf-colostrum-management) - [Dairy Calf Weaning Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-calf-weaning-management) - [Dairy Farm Manure Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-farm-manure-management) - [Goat Milk Production Quality](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/goat-milk-production-quality) - [Dairy Farm Labor Management Hiring Training And Retention](/knowledge/animal-farming/dairy-cattle/dairy-farm-labor-management-hiring-training-and-retention) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Water Buffalo Genetic Improvement and Breeding Programs](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-genetic-improvement-breeding-programs) * [Camel Farm Biosecurity: Disease Prevention and Quarantine Protocols](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-farm-biosecurity-disease-prevention-quarantine-protocols) * [Water Buffalo Farm Equipment and Infrastructure](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-farm-equipment-infrastructure) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en) - [World Organisation for Animal Health](https://www.woah.org/) - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). USDA Agricultural Research Service. - [Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.