# Alpaca and Llama Shearing: Techniques, Equipment, and Post-Shearing Care ## Key Takeaways - Alpaca and llama shearing necessitates specific restraint techniques, typically employing a shearing table with secure leg straps and head halters to minimize stress and prevent injury; alpacas generally require more comprehensive restraint than llamas, which may tolerate standing methods. - Blade selection is critical, with fine-cut blades (#10 or #9) recommended for alpacas' dense fiber and medium-cut blades (#7 or #9) for llamas' coarser guard hair, ensuring blades are sharp and properly tensioned to avoid fiber pulling and skin irritation. - Post-shearing care is paramount, focusing on providing a clean, dry, and shaded environment to prevent sunburn, especially in light-skinned animals, and vigilant monitoring for cuts, abrasions, and signs of infection such as redness, swelling, or discharge. - Biosecurity measures, including cleaning and disinfecting the shearing table between animals and isolating those with active skin infections, are essential to prevent the transmission of dermatological conditions. - Pre-shearing preparation involves a 12-hour fast (with water available until 2 hours prior) for adults to reduce bloat risk, and a thorough animal inspection for skin lesions, parasite loads, or other abnormalities that may require modified handling or delayed shearing. - Maintaining detailed records of shearing dates, fiber weights by grade, blade maintenance, and observed skin issues is crucial for optimizing future shearing schedules, identifying individual animal needs, and improving overall herd management efficiency. --- Alpaca and llama shearing requires a systematic approach to restraint, equipment selection, and skin care to prevent injury and stress. This article covers shearing table design, restraint methods, blade types, shearing patterns, and post-shearing wound management for farmers and shearers working with South American camelids. The information applies to both commercial fiber operations and small-scale hobby farms. ## At a Glance: Key Shearing Decisions | Decision Point | Alpaca (Typical) | Llama (Typical) | Notes | |----------------|------------------|-----------------|-------| | Shearing frequency | Once per year, spring | Once per year, spring | Fiber growth rate varies by individual and nutrition. Consult the FAO Animal Production and Health resources for regional guidance on fiber management. | | Restraint method | Shearing table with leg straps | Shearing table with leg straps or standing restraint | Llamas may tolerate standing shearing with a halter and side rails. Alpacas generally require full restraint. | | Blade type | Fine-cut (e.g., #10 or #9) | Medium-cut (e.g., #7 or #9) | Coarser blades reduce pulling on dense fiber. Blade selection must match fiber condition. | | Post-shearing skin care | Clean, dry environment, monitor for sunburn | Clean, dry environment, monitor for sunburn | White or light-skinned animals need shade or UV-protective blankets. Refer to the Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library for welfare guidelines. | ## Shearing Table Design and Restraint Methods A well-designed shearing table provides a stable, non-slip surface that allows the shearer to work at a comfortable height. The table should be at least 1.2 meters wide and 2.4 meters long to accommodate a full-grown llama. A padded surface reduces pressure points during restraint. The table must have secure attachment points for leg straps or a belly band. The frame should be constructed from materials that can be cleaned and disinfected between animals to prevent disease transmission, as outlined in the Animal and Veterinary Resources from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Restraint methods must balance animal safety with shearer access. Leg straps are the most common method for alpacas and llamas. Each leg is secured with a soft, wide strap that does not cut into the skin. The straps are attached to the table frame, allowing the shearer to reposition the animal without releasing all straps. A halter and head restraint prevent the animal from lifting its head during shearing. The head restraint should be padded and adjustable to avoid pressure on the poll or jaw. Standing restraint is an alternative for llamas that resist lying down. The animal is haltered and secured in a narrow chute or between side rails. The shearer works from one side, then the other. This method requires more time and may increase the risk of the animal kicking. Standing restraint is not recommended for alpacas due to their smaller size and higher stress response. The Merck Veterinary Manual's Management and Nutrition section provides additional guidance on handling and restraint of camelids. ### Table Surface and Padding Materials The table surface should be constructed from materials that provide traction without causing abrasions. Rubber matting or textured plastic sheeting works well. Padding thickness of 5 to 10 centimeters reduces pressure on bony prominences during extended restraint. The padding must be covered with a waterproof material that can be wiped down and disinfected between animals. Check the padding regularly for tears or compression that reduces its effectiveness. ### Leg Strap Configuration Leg straps should be 5 to 8 centimeters wide and made from soft nylon webbing or neoprene. Each strap must have a quick-release buckle for emergency removal. The straps are positioned just above the fetlock joint. Do not place straps over the joint itself, as this can cause injury if the animal struggles. The straps should be tight enough to prevent the leg from slipping through but loose enough to allow two fingers to slide underneath. Check strap tension every 5 minutes during shearing, as animals may shift and tighten or loosen the straps. ### Head Restraint Options A padded halter with a quick-release tie provides secure head restraint. The halter should fit snugly without pressing on the eyes or nostrils. Some shearers use a hood or blindfold to calm nervous animals. The hood must have ventilation openings and should not restrict breathing. Remove the hood immediately if the animal shows signs of respiratory distress. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on low-stress handling techniques. ## Blade Types and Shearing Patterns Blade selection depends on fiber density, length, and condition. Fine-cut blades (e.g., #10 or #9) produce a close cut and are suitable for alpacas with fine, dense fiber. Medium-cut blades (e.g., #7 or #9) are better for llamas with coarser guard hair. Blades must be sharp and properly tensioned. Dull blades pull fiber, cause skin irritation, and increase shearing time. The USDA Agricultural Research Service's Animal Production and Protection program provides information on fiber quality and processing. Shearing patterns follow the natural lay of the fiber. The standard pattern for alpacas and llamas begins with the belly and legs, then moves to the sides, back, and neck. The shearer works from the tail toward the head, using long, smooth strokes. The neck and head are sheared last to minimize stress. The fiber is collected in separate bags by grade and cleanliness. The FAO's Domestic Animal Diversity Information System (DAD-IS) provides resources on fiber classification and quality standards. ### Blade Maintenance Schedule Blades should be inspected before each animal and after every 30 minutes of continuous use. Signs of dulling include increased resistance, visible pulling of fiber, and uneven cut length. Blades that are hot to the touch need to be cooled or replaced. A spare set of blades should be available for each shearing session. Clean blades with a stiff brush after each animal to remove fiber and debris. Oil the blades according to the manufacturer's instructions before each use. ### Shearing Pattern Sequence The standard shearing sequence for alpacas and llamas follows this order: 1. Belly: Start at the midline and work outward. Use short strokes near the teats and prepuce. 2. Inside hind legs: Sheer from the stifle down to the hock. 3. Left side: Work from the belly line up to the spine. 4. Right side: Repeat the same pattern. 5. Back: Sheer from the tail toward the shoulders. 6. Neck: Work from the base of the neck toward the jaw. 7. Head: Use a smaller blade or scissors for precision around the ears, eyes, and muzzle. This sequence minimizes the number of times the animal must be repositioned. The fiber from the belly and legs is typically lower quality and should be bagged separately from the side and back fiber. ### Fiber Collection and Grading Fiber should be collected in clean bags or bins immediately after shearing. Separate the fiber by body region and quality grade. The prime fleece from the sides and back commands the highest price. Secondary fiber from the neck and legs is lower quality. Stained or matted fiber should be discarded or used for low-value products. Record the weight of each grade for each animal. The FAO Animal Production and Health resources provide guidance on fiber grading standards. ## Pre-Shearing Preparation Before shearing, the animal should be clean and dry. Wet or dirty fiber dulls blades and increases the risk of skin infection. The animal should be fasted for 12 hours to reduce the risk of bloat or regurgitation during restraint. The shearing area must be clean, well-lit, and free of drafts. The floor should be non-slip and easy to clean. The shearer should inspect the animal for skin lesions, lumps, or signs of infection. Any abnormalities should be noted and monitored after shearing. Animals with active skin infections should be sheared last to prevent cross-contamination. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on biosecurity practices for livestock handling. ### Fasting Protocol Remove feed 12 hours before the scheduled shearing time. Water should be available until 2 hours before shearing. This reduces the volume of stomach contents and lowers the risk of regurgitation during restraint. Do not fast pregnant or lactating females for more than 12 hours. Young animals under 6 months of age should not be fasted. Consult the Merck Veterinary Manual's Management and Nutrition section for specific fasting recommendations for camelids. ### Environmental Conditions The shearing area should be sheltered from wind and direct sunlight. Ambient temperature should be between 15 and 25 degrees Celsius. High temperatures increase stress and the risk of heat exhaustion. Low temperatures combined with wet conditions can cause hypothermia after the fiber is removed. The floor should be swept and disinfected between animals. Use a 1:10 bleach solution or a commercial livestock disinfectant. Allow the disinfectant to dry completely before bringing in the next animal. ### Animal Inspection Checklist Before shearing each animal, complete the following checks: - Skin condition: Look for cuts, scabs, lumps, or signs of mange. - Parasite load: Check for lice or ticks, especially around the neck and tail. - Body condition score: Note if the animal is underweight or overweight. - Pregnancy status: Pregnant females may need modified restraint. - Previous shearing issues: Review records for any problems during past shearing. Record any findings in the animal's health record. Animals with active skin infections should be treated before shearing or sheared last to prevent spread. ## Shearing Procedure The animal is placed on the shearing table in a lateral recumbent position. The legs are secured with straps, and the head is restrained with a halter. The shearer begins with the belly, using short, careful strokes to avoid the teats and prepuce. The legs are sheared next, working from the hoof upward. The sides and back are sheared in long, overlapping strokes. The shearer maintains consistent pressure to avoid uneven cuts. The neck is sheared from the base to the jaw, taking care around the ears and eyes. The head is sheared last, using a smaller blade or scissors for precision. The shearer should avoid stretching the skin, as this can cause cuts when the skin relaxes. ### Positioning the Animal Place the animal on its side with the spine parallel to the table edge. The head should be slightly elevated to reduce the risk of regurgitation. The legs are secured in a relaxed position, not pulled tight. The animal should be able to breathe freely without restriction. Check the position of the halter to ensure it is not pressing on the trachea. If the animal struggles, pause and allow it to calm down before continuing. ### Stroke Technique Use long, smooth strokes that follow the contour of the body. Each stroke should overlap the previous stroke by half the blade width. This prevents missed patches and ensures an even cut. Apply consistent pressure throughout the stroke. Too much pressure causes skin irritation and increases the risk of cuts. Too little pressure leaves long fiber. The blade should glide through the fiber without resistance. If you feel resistance, stop and check the blade tension or sharpness. ### Areas Requiring Special Care Several areas require extra caution during shearing: - Teats and prepuce: Use short, light strokes. Hold the skin taut with your free hand. - Ears: Use scissors or a small trimmer. Do not use the main shearing blade near the ear canal. - Eyes: Keep the blade at least 2 centimeters away from the eye. Use scissors for the area around the eye. - Armpits and groin: The skin is thin and loose in these areas. Use short strokes and avoid stretching the skin. - Spine: The skin over the spine is thin. Use light pressure to avoid cutting the skin. If you cut the skin, stop and clean the wound immediately. Minor cuts can be treated with antiseptic. Deep cuts that do not stop bleeding require veterinary attention. ### Managing Difficult Animals Some animals resist restraint and may struggle during shearing. Signs of distress include vocalizing, kicking, hyperventilating, and attempting to stand. If the animal becomes agitated, stop shearing and allow it to calm down. Speak softly and avoid sudden movements. If the animal does not calm down within 5 minutes, release it and reschedule shearing for another day. Do not force an animal that is severely stressed. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on recognizing and managing stress in livestock. ## Post-Shearing Skin Care After shearing, the skin is exposed and vulnerable to sunburn, insect bites, and abrasions. The animal should be moved to a clean, dry, shaded area. White or light-skinned animals need protection from direct sunlight. UV-protective blankets or shade cloth can be used. The Merck Veterinary Manual's Management and Nutrition section provides information on environmental management for camelids. The shearer should inspect the skin for cuts, nicks, or abrasions. Minor cuts can be cleaned with a mild antiseptic and left to heal. Deep cuts or wounds that do not stop bleeding require veterinary attention. Signs of infection, such as redness, swelling, or discharge, should be monitored and escalated if they persist. The Animal and Veterinary Resources from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration provide guidance on wound management and infection control. ### Immediate Post-Shearing Actions Within the first hour after shearing, complete the following steps: 1. Move the animal to a shaded, sheltered area. 2. Offer fresh water and hay. 3. Inspect the skin for cuts, nicks, and abrasions. 4. Clean any cuts with a mild antiseptic solution. 5. Apply a fly repellent if flies are present. 6. Record the shearing date, fiber weight, and any skin issues. Do not turn animals out into pasture immediately after shearing. Keep them in a clean, dry pen for at least 24 hours to allow the skin to adjust. ### Sunburn Prevention Sunburn is a serious risk for recently sheared camelids, especially those with white or light-colored skin. Sunburn causes pain, skin peeling, and increased risk of skin infections. Provide shade in the form of trees, shade cloth, or a covered shelter. UV-protective blankets are available for animals that must be in direct sunlight. Apply a livestock-safe sunscreen to the ears, nose, and other exposed areas if shade is not available. Monitor the skin for signs of sunburn, including redness, swelling, and blistering. Animals with severe sunburn need veterinary care. ### Temperature Management After shearing, the animal loses its insulation and may be sensitive to temperature changes. In cold weather, provide a blanket or shelter to prevent hypothermia. In hot weather, ensure access to shade and cool water. Monitor the animal for signs of heat stress, including panting, drooling, and lethargy. The Merck Veterinary Manual's Management and Nutrition section provides guidance on environmental management for camelids. ### Wound Monitoring Check all cuts and nicks daily for 7 days after shearing. Signs of infection include redness, swelling, heat, discharge, and pain. Clean the wound with a mild antiseptic solution and apply a topical antibiotic if available. If the wound does not improve within 3 days, or if signs of infection worsen, consult a veterinarian. The Animal and Veterinary Resources from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration provide guidance on wound management. ## Common Failure Patterns Failure to properly restrain the animal can lead to injury to both the animal and the shearer. Loose straps allow the animal to kick or roll, increasing the risk of cuts. Over-tightened straps restrict circulation and cause pain. The shearer should check strap tension regularly and adjust as needed. Using dull or incorrect blades causes fiber pulling, skin irritation, and uneven cuts. This increases shearing time and stress for the animal. Blades should be inspected before each animal and replaced or sharpened as needed. Failure to clean the shearing area between animals can spread skin infections. Post-shearing care is often neglected. Animals left in direct sunlight without shade or protection can develop severe sunburn. Dirty bedding or wet conditions increase the risk of skin infections. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on post-shearing management. ### Restraint Failures Common restraint failures include: - Leg straps slipping off during shearing - Head restraint coming loose - Animal rolling off the table - Straps causing circulation problems To prevent these failures, check all straps before starting. Use quick-release buckles that can be opened quickly if needed. Position the table on a level surface. Have an assistant available to help with difficult animals. ### Blade Failures Common blade failures include: - Blades overheating and causing burns - Blades becoming dull mid-session - Incorrect blade tension causing uneven cuts - Blade breakage To prevent these failures, keep spare blades on hand. Check blade temperature every 15 minutes. Adjust tension according to the manufacturer's instructions. Replace blades at the first sign of dulling. ### Skin Damage Patterns Common skin damage patterns include: - Cuts from stretching the skin - Burns from overheated blades - Irritation from dull blades - Infection from dirty equipment To prevent skin damage, avoid stretching the skin during shearing. Keep blades cool and sharp. Clean and disinfect equipment between animals. Monitor the skin after shearing and treat any damage promptly. ## Records and Measurements Maintaining records of shearing dates, blade maintenance, and animal condition helps improve future shearing. Record the date, animal ID, fiber weight, and any skin issues observed. Note the blade type and condition used. Track the time required for each animal to identify patterns of difficulty. Measurements of fiber length and quality can guide shearing frequency. Animals with slower fiber growth may need shearing every 14 months. Animals with faster growth may need shearing every 10 months. Adjust the schedule based on individual observations. The FAO Animal Production and Health resources provide guidance on fiber measurement and quality assessment. ### Shearing Record Template Maintain a record for each animal that includes: - Animal ID and breed - Date of shearing - Time required for shearing - Blade type and condition - Fiber weight by grade - Skin issues observed - Post-shearing care provided - Any veterinary consultations Review these records before each shearing session to identify animals that may need special handling. ### Fiber Quality Measurements Measure fiber length and diameter to track quality over time. Use a ruler to measure staple length at the shoulder, mid-side, and hip. Record the average length for each animal. Fiber diameter requires a laboratory test but can be estimated by feel. Fine fiber feels soft and silky. Coarse fiber feels stiff and wiry. The USDA Agricultural Research Service's Animal Production and Protection program provides information on fiber quality testing. ### Performance Tracking Track the following metrics to improve shearing efficiency: - Animals sheared per hour - Average time per animal - Number of cuts or injuries per session - Fiber yield per animal - Blade changes per session Use this data to identify areas for improvement. For example, if you are making frequent blade changes, you may need to improve your blade maintenance routine. If you are seeing many cuts, you may need to adjust your technique or restraint method. ## Welfare and Safety Context Shearing is a stressful event for alpacas and llamas. Proper restraint and a calm environment reduce stress. The shearer should work quietly and avoid sudden movements. Animals that show signs of extreme stress, such as vocalizing, struggling, or hyperventilating, should be released and allowed to calm down before continuing. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on stress reduction during handling. Worker safety is equally important. The shearer should wear non-slip boots, gloves, and eye protection. The shearing table should be stable and free of tripping hazards. Blades should be handled carefully and stored in a protective case when not in use. The USDA Agricultural Research Service's Animal Production and Protection program provides information on worker safety in livestock operations. ### Animal Welfare Indicators Monitor the following indicators during shearing: - Breathing rate: Normal is 10 to 30 breaths per minute. Rapid breathing indicates stress. - Heart rate: Normal is 60 to 90 beats per minute. Elevated heart rate indicates stress. - Vocalization: Occasional vocalization is normal. Continuous vocalization indicates distress. - Struggling: Occasional movement is normal. Continuous struggling indicates distress. - Salivation: Excessive drooling indicates stress or nausea. If any of these indicators are abnormal, stop shearing and allow the animal to rest. If the animal does not recover within 5 minutes, release it and reschedule. ### Worker Safety Practices Follow these safety practices during shearing: - Wear non-slip boots with steel toes. - Use cut-resistant gloves on the hand that holds the skin taut. - Wear eye protection to guard against flying fiber and debris. - Keep the shearing area clean and free of tripping hazards. - Store blades in a protective case when not in use. - Have a first aid kit available. - Work with an assistant when shearing large or difficult animals. The USDA Agricultural Research Service's Animal Production and Protection program provides additional guidance on worker safety. ### Biosecurity Measures Implement the following biosecurity measures to prevent disease spread: - Clean and disinfect the shearing table between animals. - Use separate blades for animals with skin infections. - Wear disposable gloves when handling animals with open wounds. - Isolate animals with skin infections from the rest of the herd. - Wash hands between animals. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on biosecurity practices. ## Professional Escalation Criteria If an animal has a deep cut that does not stop bleeding, a wound that shows signs of infection, or a skin condition that worsens after shearing, consult a veterinarian. Animals that refuse to eat or drink after shearing may be experiencing stress or pain and should be evaluated. The Animal and Veterinary Resources from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration provide guidance on when to seek veterinary care. If the shearer is unable to safely restrain an animal, or if the animal shows signs of aggression that cannot be managed, stop the procedure and seek assistance from an experienced handler or veterinarian. The Merck Veterinary Manual's Management and Nutrition section provides guidance on handling difficult animals. ### When to Call a Veterinarian Call a veterinarian immediately if: - A cut does not stop bleeding after 10 minutes of direct pressure. - A wound shows signs of infection (redness, swelling, discharge, heat). - The animal has a fever (temperature above 39.5 degrees Celsius). - The animal refuses to eat or drink for more than 24 hours. - The animal shows signs of severe pain (vocalizing, trembling, reluctance to move). - The animal has difficulty breathing. - The animal has a seizure or collapses. ### When to Seek Assistance from an Experienced Handler Seek assistance from an experienced handler if: - You are unable to safely restrain the animal. - The animal shows signs of aggression that cannot be managed. - The animal is too large or strong for you to handle alone. - You are unsure about the correct restraint method. - The animal has a medical condition that requires special handling. ### When to Stop Shearing Stop shearing immediately if: - The animal shows signs of severe stress. - The animal injures itself or the shearer. - The equipment malfunctions. - The shearing area becomes unsafe. - You are unsure about how to proceed. Resume shearing only after the issue is resolved. If the issue cannot be resolved, consult a veterinarian or experienced handler. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How often should alpacas and llamas be sheared? Alpacas and llamas are typically sheared once per year in the spring. The exact timing depends on fiber growth rate, climate, and individual animal condition. Some animals with slower fiber growth may be sheared every 14 months. The FAO Animal Production and Health resources provide regional guidance on shearing schedules. ### What type of shearing table is best for alpacas and llamas? A padded table at least 1.2 meters wide and 2.4 meters long with secure leg strap attachment points is recommended. The table should be stable and at a comfortable working height for the shearer. The surface should be non-slip and easy to clean between animals. ### Can llamas be sheared standing up? Some llamas can be sheared standing up using a halter and side rails. This method is slower and may increase the risk of kicking. It is not recommended for alpacas due to their smaller size and higher stress response. The Merck Veterinary Manual's Management and Nutrition section provides guidance on restraint methods. ### What blade should I use for alpaca fiber? Fine-cut blades, such as #10 or #9, are recommended for alpacas with fine, dense fiber. Coarser blades may pull the fiber and cause skin irritation. The USDA Agricultural Research Service's Animal Production and Protection program provides information on fiber processing and blade selection. ### How do I prevent sunburn after shearing? Move the animal to a shaded area immediately after shearing. White or light-skinned animals may need a UV-protective blanket. Avoid turning animals out into direct sunlight for at least two weeks. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on environmental management. ### What should I do if I cut the animal during shearing? Clean the cut with a mild antiseptic. Minor cuts will heal on their own. Deep cuts that do not stop bleeding require veterinary attention. Monitor the wound for signs of infection. The Animal and Veterinary Resources from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration provide guidance on wound management. ### How do I reduce stress during shearing? Work quietly and calmly. Use proper restraint to prevent the animal from struggling. Take breaks if the animal shows signs of extreme stress. Ensure the shearing area is clean, well-lit, and free of drafts. The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on stress reduction. ### When should I call a veterinarian after shearing? Call a veterinarian if the animal has a deep cut that does not stop bleeding, a wound that shows signs of infection, or if the animal refuses to eat or drink after shearing. Also consult a veterinarian if you are unable to safely restrain the animal. The Merck Veterinary Manual's Management and Nutrition section provides guidance on when to seek professional help. ## Related Farming Guides - [Sheep Shearing Preparation Handling And Post Shearing Care](/knowledge/animal-farming/sheep/sheep-shearing-preparation-handling-and-post-shearing-care) - [Farm Breeding Record System Design](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/farm-breeding-record-system-design) - [Livestock Waste Management Composting Anaerobic Digestion Nutrient Recovery](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-waste-management-composting-anaerobic-digestion-nutrient-recovery) - [Livestock Labor Management Hiring Training Retention](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-labor-management-hiring-training-retention) - [Drone Remote Sensing Pasture Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/drone-remote-sensing-pasture-management) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Water Buffalo Genetic Improvement and Breeding Programs](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-genetic-improvement-breeding-programs) * [Camel Farm Biosecurity: Disease Prevention and Quarantine Protocols](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-farm-biosecurity-disease-prevention-quarantine-protocols) * [Water Buffalo Farm Equipment and Infrastructure](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-farm-equipment-infrastructure) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). USDA Agricultural Research Service. - [Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.