# Alpaca and Llama Parasite Control: Internal and External Parasite Management ## Key Takeaways - Effective alpaca and llama parasite control hinges on a multi-faceted approach integrating diagnostic monitoring (fecal egg counts, FAMACHA scoring, skin scrapings), targeted selective treatment (TST), pasture management, and biosecurity to mitigate drug resistance. - Gastrointestinal nematodes like *Haemonchus contortus* are managed through fecal egg counts (FEC) and FAMACHA scoring, with treatment thresholds guiding decisions to preserve anthelmintic efficacy and prevent resistance. - Coccidiosis, primarily affecting young crias, is diagnosed via fecal flotation with oocyst counts and managed through hygiene, reduced stocking density, and anticoccidial drugs prescribed by a veterinarian. - External parasites such as mites (*Sarcoptes*, *Chorioptes*) and lice (*Bovicola*, *Linognathus*) are identified through skin scrapings and visual inspection, respectively, and treated with topical or injectable acaricides/insecticides, requiring repeat treatments and isolation of affected animals. - Anthelmintic resistance is a significant threat, necessitating regular fecal egg count reduction tests (FECRT) to assess drug efficacy and the strategic use of different anthelmintic classes, alongside pasture rotation and quarantine protocols for new animals. - A systematic five-step decision cycle—assessing risk, collecting diagnostics, applying thresholds, selecting treatment, and evaluating response—is crucial for evidence-based parasite control, supported by detailed record-keeping of FEC, treatments, and clinical observations. --- Internal and external parasites pose a persistent threat to alpaca and llama health, productivity, and welfare. Effective parasite control requires a systematic approach that integrates diagnostic monitoring, targeted treatment, pasture management, and biosecurity to slow the development of drug resistance. This article provides evidence-based strategies for managing nematodes, coccidia, mites, and lice in South American camelids, with emphasis on fecal egg counting, anthelmintic stewardship, and practical farm-level decisions. ## At a Glance: Parasite Control Decision Framework | Parasite Type | Common Signs | Diagnostic Method | Primary Control Approach | |---------------|--------------|-------------------|--------------------------| | Gastrointestinal nematodes (e.g., *Haemonchus*, *Trichostrongylus*) | Weight loss, diarrhea, anemia, poor coat condition | Fecal egg count (FEC), FAMACHA scoring | Targeted selective treatment based on FEC thresholds, pasture rotation, anthelmintic resistance testing | | Coccidia (*Eimeria* spp.) | Diarrhea (often in young crias), dehydration, reduced growth | Fecal floatation with oocyst count | Hygiene in cria housing, reduce stocking density, supportive care, anticoccidial drugs under veterinary guidance | | Mites (*Sarcoptes*, *Chorioptes*) | Intense pruritus, crusting, alopecia, skin thickening | Skin scraping, microscopic examination | Topical or injectable acaricides, isolate affected animals, treat all in-contact animals | | Lice (*Bovicola* spp., *Linognathus* spp.) | Pruritus, rough coat, hair loss, visible nits or adults | Visual inspection, combing, microscopic identification | Topical insecticide treatment, repeat in 14-21 days, treat all animals in group | ## Understanding Parasite Biology and Transmission ### Gastrointestinal Nematodes Alpacas and llamas are susceptible to several species of gastrointestinal nematodes, including *[Haemonchus contortus](/knowledge/parasites/livestock-parasites/haemonchus-contortus)* (barber pole worm), *Trichostrongylus* spp., *Teladorsagia* spp., and *Nematodirus* spp. These parasites have a direct life cycle: adult worms in the stomach or intestines produce eggs that pass in feces. Eggs hatch on pasture, develop through larval stages, and are ingested by grazing animals. The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides resources on livestock parasite ecology and control strategies through its Animal Production and Protection program. The prepatent period from ingestion to egg production varies by species, typically ranging from 2 to 4 weeks. Environmental conditions strongly influence larval survival and development. Warm, moist conditions favor rapid development, while hot, dry, or freezing conditions reduce survival. Pasture contamination levels depend on stocking density, grazing management, and previous deworming history. ### Coccidia Coccidiosis is caused by protozoan parasites of the genus *Eimeria*. Multiple species infect camelids, with *Eimeria macusaniensis* and *Eimeria lamae* being clinically significant. Coccidia have a direct life cycle: infected animals shed oocysts in feces. After sporulation, which requires warmth, moisture, and oxygen, oocysts become infective. Ingested sporulated oocysts release sporozoites that invade intestinal epithelial cells, undergo several rounds of replication, and produce new oocysts. Young crias are most susceptible to clinical disease, particularly during periods of stress such as weaning, transport, or weather changes. Adult animals often develop immunity but can remain subclinical shedders, contaminating the environment. ### External Parasites: Mites and Lice Mange mites (*Sarcoptes scabiei*, *Chorioptes bovis*) burrow into the skin or live on the skin surface, causing intense itching, inflammation, crust formation, and hair loss. *Sarcoptes* mites are highly contagious and can cause severe generalized disease. *Chorioptes* mites typically affect the lower legs, perineum, and ventral abdomen. Transmission occurs through direct contact or contaminated bedding, fences, and handling equipment. Lice are host-specific insects that complete their entire life cycle on the animal. Chewing lice (*Bovicola* spp.) feed on skin debris and hair, while sucking lice (*Linognathus* spp.) feed on blood. Heavy infestations cause pruritus, poor coat quality, and anemia in severe cases. Lice are transmitted by direct contact and through shared grooming tools, blankets, or housing. ## Diagnostic Methods and Monitoring ### Fecal Egg Counts Fecal egg count (FEC) is the cornerstone of internal parasite monitoring in camelids. The modified McMaster technique is the standard quantitative method, providing eggs per gram (EPG) of feces. The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on fecal examination techniques for livestock. FEC results guide treatment decisions and assess the effectiveness of deworming programs. Collect fresh fecal samples from the rectum or immediately after defecation from individual animals or pooled groups. For individual monitoring, sample 10 to 15 percent of the herd or at least 10 animals per management group. Pooled samples from 5 to 10 animals can provide a herd-level estimate but may mask individual high shedders. Interpretation of FEC results requires species-specific thresholds. Low counts below 200 EPG suggest adequate control or low pasture contamination. Moderate to high counts warrant treatment consideration, though clinical signs and animal condition must be factored. The FAO Animal Production and Health division provides resources on sustainable parasite management approaches. ### FAMACHA Scoring FAMACHA scoring assesses anemia by examining the color of the conjunctival membranes on the eyelid lining. This system was developed for sheep and goats but has been adapted for camelids, particularly for detecting *Haemonchus contortus* infection, which causes blood loss. Scores range from 1 (normal red) to 5 (pale white). Animals with scores of 3 or higher may require treatment. FAMACHA scoring is most useful in herds where *Haemonchus* is the predominant parasite. It does not detect infections with non-blood-feeding worms or coccidia. Regular training and practice are needed to achieve consistent scoring. ### Skin Scraping and Visual Inspection For external parasites, skin scrapings from active lesions are examined microscopically for mites. Scrape the edge of fresh lesions until capillary bleeding is seen. Multiple scrapings from different sites increase detection sensitivity. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health and welfare diagnostic procedures. Visual inspection for lice involves parting the hair coat and examining the skin and hair shafts for nits (eggs attached to hair), nymphs, and adult lice. Focus on the neck, shoulders, back, and perineum. Use a fine-toothed comb to collect specimens for microscopic identification. ## Anthelmintic Classes and Resistance Management ### Available Anthelmintic Classes Several anthelmintic classes are used in camelids, though few are specifically labeled for South American camelids. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration provides information on approved animal drugs and extralabel use considerations. Common classes include: - **Benzimidazoles** (e.g., fenbendazole, oxfendazole): Effective against adult and larval stages of many nematodes. Administered orally, often as a drench. - **Macrocyclic lactones** (e.g., ivermectin, moxidectin): Broad-spectrum activity against nematodes and some external parasites. Available as injectable, oral, or pour-on formulations. - **Imidazothiazoles** (e.g., levamisole): Effective against adult nematodes. Administered orally or by injection. - **Amino-acetonitrile derivatives** (e.g., monepantel): Newer class with activity against resistant nematodes. Not yet widely available for camelids. ### Anthelmintic Resistance Resistance to multiple anthelmintic classes is a growing concern in livestock worldwide. The FAO Animal Production and Health division addresses sustainable parasite control and resistance management. Resistance develops when frequent, suboptimal dosing selects for worms that survive treatment. These resistant worms reproduce and pass resistance genes to subsequent generations. Signs of resistance include failure to achieve expected reduction in FEC after treatment, persistent clinical signs despite treatment, and need for increasing dose rates or more frequent treatments. ### [Fecal Egg Count Reduction Test](/knowledge/diagnostics/parasitology/fecal-egg-count-reduction-test-for-anthelmintic-resistance) The fecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) is the standard method for detecting anthelmintic resistance. The protocol involves: 1. Collect fecal samples from 10 to 15 animals with positive FEC 2. Treat all animals with the anthelmintic being tested 3. Collect follow-up samples 10 to 14 days later (14 days for benzimidazoles, 10 to 14 days for macrocyclic lactones) 4. Calculate percent reduction: (pre-treatment mean EPG minus post-treatment mean EPG) divided by pre-treatment mean EPG multiplied by 100 A reduction below 90 to 95 percent suggests resistance. Repeat testing with different drug classes to characterize the resistance profile on your farm. ## Integrated Parasite Control Strategies ### Pasture Management Pasture management reduces exposure to infective larvae and oocysts. Key practices include: - Rotational grazing with rest periods of 30 to 60 days (longer in cool, moist conditions) - Cross-grazing with cattle or horses, which do not share camelid parasites - Haying or grazing alternative species to break parasite cycles - Avoiding overstocking, which increases pasture contamination - Removing manure from small paddocks and cria areas The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides research on grazing management for parasite control. Pasture rest periods must account for local climate. Larvae survive longer in cool, wet conditions and shorter in hot, dry conditions. ### Targeted Selective Treatment Targeted selective treatment (TST) involves treating only animals that need it, based on FEC, FAMACHA score, or clinical signs. This approach preserves a population of unselected worms (refugia) on pasture, slowing resistance development. The FAO supports integrated parasite management approaches that include TST. Criteria for treatment include: - FEC above farm-specific threshold - FAMACHA score of 3 or higher - Poor body condition or weight loss - Diarrhea or other clinical signs - Young animals (crias, yearlings) with moderate to high FEC ### Quarantine and Biosecurity New animals entering the farm are a common source of resistant parasites. Implement a quarantine protocol: 1. Isolate new arrivals for 14 to 30 days 2. Perform FEC on arrival 3. Treat with a combination of anthelmintic classes (e.g., a benzimidazole plus a macrocyclic lactone) if FEC is high 4. Recheck FEC 10 to 14 days after treatment 5. Only introduce animals to the main herd after confirming adequate reduction The Animal Health and Welfare resources from the USDA National Agricultural Library provide guidance on biosecurity practices for livestock operations. ### Cria and Young Stock Management Young animals are most vulnerable to coccidiosis and nematode infections. Management strategies include: - Clean, dry, well-bedded cria housing with regular manure removal - Low stocking density in cria pens - Separate grazing areas for weaned crias and yearlings - Monitoring weight gain and fecal consistency - Early FEC monitoring starting at 4 to 6 weeks of age ## External Parasite Control ### Mange Treatment Mange requires prompt diagnosis and treatment to prevent spread and welfare compromise. Treatment options include: - Injectable macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin, moxidectin) administered under veterinary supervision - Topical acaricides (e.g., amitraz, permethrin) applied to affected areas - Lime sulfur dips for severe cases Treatment protocols typically require multiple doses at 7 to 14 day intervals to kill newly hatched mites. All in-contact animals should be treated simultaneously. Environmental decontamination through bedding removal and pen cleaning is essential to prevent reinfestation. ### Lice Control Lice infestations are managed with topical insecticides applied as pour-ons, sprays, or dusts. Products containing permethrin, cypermethrin, or ivermectin are commonly used. Treatment must be repeated in 14 to 21 days to kill newly hatched nymphs. All animals in the group should be treated, even if asymptomatic. Shearing heavily infested animals can reduce lice populations and improve treatment penetration. Grooming equipment, blankets, and handling facilities should be cleaned between uses. ## Records and Measurements Maintain detailed records to track parasite control effectiveness and identify emerging problems. Essential records include: - **Individual animal FEC results** with dates, animal ID, and treatment history - **FECRT results** by drug class and year - **Treatment records** including drug, dose, route, date, and withdrawal periods - **Clinical observations** (body condition score, FAMACHA, diarrhea, pruritus) - **Pasture management** (grazing dates, rest periods, manure removal) - **Quarantine and biosecurity actions** Review records quarterly to identify trends. Increasing FEC levels, declining treatment efficacy, or rising clinical cases signal the need for protocol adjustments. ## Common Failure Patterns ### Overreliance on Anthelmintics Treating all animals on a fixed schedule (e.g., every 4 to 6 weeks) without diagnostic monitoring accelerates resistance. This practice selects for resistant worms and eliminates susceptible refugia. Transition to targeted selective treatment based on FEC or clinical assessment. ### Underdosing Inaccurate weight estimation leads to underdosing, which exposes worms to sublethal drug concentrations and promotes resistance. Weigh animals or use a weight tape to estimate dose. Calibrate drenching equipment regularly. The FDA provides guidance on proper drug administration. ### Ignoring Pasture Contamination Treating animals without addressing pasture contamination results in rapid reinfection. Larvae and oocysts survive on pasture for weeks to months. Combine treatment with pasture rest, rotation, or haying to break the cycle. ### Incomplete External Parasite Treatment Treating only visibly affected animals while ignoring in-contact animals allows mites and lice to persist. Treat all animals in the group simultaneously. Repeat treatments as needed to kill newly hatched stages. ## Welfare and Safety Context ### Animal Welfare Untreated parasite infections cause significant welfare compromise. Heavy nematode burdens lead to weight loss, anemia, diarrhea, and death in severe cases. Mange causes intense pruritus, pain, and skin damage. Lice infestations result in chronic irritation and poor coat condition. Prompt diagnosis and treatment are essential for welfare. The FAO Animal Production and Health division emphasizes the importance of animal health for sustainable livestock production. Regular monitoring and early intervention prevent suffering and reduce production losses. ### Worker Safety Some anthelmintics and acaricides pose risks to handlers. Read and follow all label instructions. Wear appropriate personal protective equipment including gloves, goggles, and respirators when handling concentrated products. Wash hands after handling animals or equipment. Store all veterinary products securely, away from children and feed. ### [Food Safety](/knowledge/bacteria/livestock-bacteria/cooking-chicken-bacteria-prevention) If animals are used for meat or milk production, observe all withdrawal periods specified on drug labels or prescribed by a veterinarian. Extralabel drug use requires a valid veterinary-client-patient relationship and may involve extended withdrawal times. The FDA provides information on drug residues and food safety. ## Professional Escalation Criteria Consult a veterinarian when: - FECRT indicates resistance to multiple drug classes - Clinical disease persists despite appropriate treatment - Mange or lice infestations do not respond to treatment - Multiple animals show severe signs (anemia, weight loss, diarrhea) - You need guidance on extralabel drug use or withdrawal periods - You suspect a notifiable disease (e.g., sarcoptic mange in some regions) A veterinarian can perform diagnostic testing, develop a tailored control plan, and prescribe medications not available over the counter. ## Practical Decision Framework for Parasite Control in Alpacas and Llamas A systematic decision framework helps farmers make consistent, evidence-based parasite control choices that balance animal health with resistance management. This framework integrates diagnostic data, animal observations, and treatment history into a repeatable process that can be adapted to individual farm conditions. ### The Five-Step Parasite Control Decision Cycle Implement this cycle at regular intervals throughout the grazing season, typically every 4 to 6 weeks during high-risk periods and every 8 to 12 weeks during low-risk periods. **Step 1: Assess Current Parasite Risk** Evaluate three factors to determine the current risk level on your farm: - Environmental conditions: Temperature, rainfall, and humidity over the preceding 2 to 4 weeks. Warm, wet conditions favor nematode larval development and survival. The USDA Agricultural Research Service provides climate and grazing management resources through its Animal Production and Protection program. - Animal susceptibility: Age, body condition, and stress status of the herd. Crias, yearlings, pregnant or lactating females, and animals in poor condition are at higher risk. - Pasture history: Grazing duration, stocking density, and rest period since last use. Pastures grazed within the previous 30 days pose higher risk than rested pastures. Record each factor as low, moderate, or high risk. The overall risk level is determined by the highest individual factor rating. **Step 2: Collect Diagnostic Data** Gather objective data before making treatment decisions: - Fecal egg counts from representative animals (10 to 15 percent of the herd or minimum 10 animals per management group) - FAMACHA scores for all animals if Haemonchus is a concern - Body condition scores for all animals - Visual inspection for external parasites in 20 percent of the herd or all animals showing signs The Merck Veterinary Manual provides guidance on fecal examination techniques and interpretation for livestock. Collect samples from the same animals at each monitoring interval to track individual trends. **Step 3: Apply Treatment Thresholds** Use the following thresholds to guide treatment decisions. These thresholds are starting points that should be adjusted based on your farm's specific parasite profile and resistance status. | Risk Factor | Low Risk | Moderate Risk | High Risk | |-------------|----------|---------------|-----------| | FEC (EPG) | Below 200 | 200 to 500 | Above 500 | | FAMACHA score | 1 to 2 | 3 | 4 to 5 | | Body condition score | 3 to 5 (ideal) | 2 to 2.5 | 1 to 1.5 | | External parasite signs | None | Mild pruritus or few lice | Severe pruritus, crusting, or heavy lice | Treat individual animals when any single factor reaches the high-risk threshold. Treat the entire management group when more than 20 percent of sampled animals reach the high-risk threshold for the same factor. **Step 4: Select Treatment Protocol** Choose the treatment approach based on the parasite type identified and your farm's resistance profile: - For nematodes with FEC above threshold: Use the anthelmintic class that showed greater than 95 percent efficacy in your most recent FECRT. If no recent FECRT is available, use a combination of two anthelmintic classes from different chemical families. - For coccidia with clinical signs: Consult a veterinarian for appropriate anticoccidial treatment. Supportive care including fluids and nutrition is essential for affected crias. - For mites or lice: Treat all in-contact animals with an appropriate acaricide or insecticide. Repeat treatment in 14 to 21 days. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration provides information on approved animal drugs and extralabel use considerations. Record the drug name, dose, route, date, and withdrawal period for every treatment. **Step 5: Evaluate Treatment Response** Assess treatment effectiveness 10 to 14 days after deworming or 14 to 21 days after external parasite treatment: - Repeat FEC on treated animals to calculate percent reduction - Reassess FAMACHA scores and body condition - Inspect for remaining external parasites A reduction below 90 percent for any anthelmintic class indicates resistance and requires protocol adjustment. Document all results in your farm records. ### Record System for Parasite Control Maintain a standardized record system that captures the data needed for decision-making and trend analysis. Use a spreadsheet or paper log with the following fields for each monitoring event: **Herd-Level Records** - Date of monitoring - Management group identification - Number of animals sampled - Mean FEC (EPG) and range - Percentage of animals with FAMACHA score 3 or higher - Percentage of animals with body condition score below 2 - External parasite prevalence - Pasture identification and days since last grazing - Treatment decisions and rationale **Individual Animal Records** - Animal ID - Age and sex - FEC result (EPG) - FAMACHA score - Body condition score - External parasite findings - Treatment date, drug, dose, and route - Post-treatment FEC and date Review records quarterly to identify trends. Increasing mean FEC over consecutive monitoring events, declining FECRT results, or rising clinical case numbers signal the need for protocol adjustments. The FAO Animal Production and Health division provides resources on sustainable parasite management approaches that can inform record-keeping systems. ### Troubleshooting Common Decision Framework Failures **Failure Pattern 1: Inconsistent Monitoring Intervals** Skipping monitoring events or extending intervals beyond 8 weeks during high-risk periods allows parasite burdens to increase undetected. Set calendar reminders for monitoring dates. If staffing or time constraints prevent full monitoring, prioritize high-risk groups such as crias, yearlings, and thin animals. **Failure Pattern 2: Treating Based on Single Data Point** Making treatment decisions based on one FEC result or one FAMACHA score without considering other factors leads to unnecessary treatments or missed infections. Always evaluate at least two data points (e.g., FEC plus body condition or FAMACHA plus clinical signs) before treating. **Failure Pattern 3: Ignoring Individual Variation** Using group averages to make individual treatment decisions misses high-shedding animals that drive pasture contamination. Always identify and treat individual animals that exceed thresholds, even if the group average is acceptable. The USDA National Agricultural Library provides resources on animal health monitoring approaches through its Animal Health and Welfare program. **Failure Pattern 4: Delaying Post-Treatment Evaluation** Skipping post-treatment FEC or external parasite checks leaves resistance undetected until clinical disease reappears. Schedule post-treatment evaluation at the time of treatment. If laboratory access is limited, collect and refrigerate samples for analysis within 48 hours. ### When to Escalate to Professional Assistance Consult a veterinarian when: - FECRT results show less than 90 percent reduction for two or more anthelmintic classes - Clinical disease persists in multiple animals despite appropriate treatment - External parasite infestations do not resolve after two treatment cycles - You need guidance on extralabel drug use, withdrawal periods, or combination therapy - You suspect a notifiable disease such as sarcoptic mange in regions where it is reportable A veterinarian can perform additional diagnostic testing, develop a customized control plan, and prescribe medications not available over the counter. The FDA provides guidance on establishing a valid veterinary-client-patient relationship for extralabel drug use. ## Frequently Asked Questions ### How often should I perform fecal egg counts on my alpacas or llamas? Perform FEC at least 2 to 4 times per year, with more frequent testing during high-risk periods such as spring, fall, and after rain. Sample 10 to 15 percent of the herd or at least 10 animals per management group. Increase frequency if you suspect resistance or are implementing targeted selective treatment. ### What is the best dewormer for llamas and alpacas? There is no single best dewormer. The choice depends on the parasite species present, resistance patterns on your farm, and drug availability. Use FECRT to determine which anthelmintic classes remain effective. Rotate drug classes annually or use combination treatments under veterinary guidance. ### Can I use sheep or goat dewormers on camelids? Many dewormers used in sheep and goats are also used in camelids, but few are specifically labeled for South American camelids. Work with a veterinarian to determine appropriate products, doses, and withdrawal periods. Extralabel drug use requires a valid veterinary-client-patient relationship. ### How do I treat mange in alpacas? Mange requires veterinary diagnosis and treatment. Injectable macrocyclic lactones (ivermectin, moxidectin) are commonly used, often requiring multiple doses. Topical acaricides may be applied to localized lesions. Treat all in-contact animals and decontaminate the environment. ### What causes diarrhea in young crias? Coccidiosis is a common cause of diarrhea in crias, particularly during stress periods. Other causes include bacterial infections, viral infections, dietary changes, and nematode infections. Fecal examination can identify coccidia oocysts or nematode eggs. Supportive care including fluids and nutrition is important while awaiting diagnostic results. ### How can I prevent parasite resistance on my farm? Prevent resistance by using targeted selective treatment (treat only animals with high FEC or clinical signs), performing FECRT annually, rotating drug classes, maintaining refugia (untreated animals), and combining treatment with pasture management. Avoid routine deworming of all animals without diagnostic justification. ### Do I need to treat all animals for lice or mites? Yes. Treat all animals in the group simultaneously, even if only a few show signs. External parasites spread rapidly through direct contact. Repeat treatment in 14 to 21 days to kill newly hatched stages. Clean and disinfect bedding, grooming tools, and handling equipment. ### What withdrawal periods apply to camelid dewormers? Withdrawal periods for camelids are often not established because few drugs are specifically labeled for these species. When using drugs extralabel, consult your veterinarian to determine appropriate withdrawal times for meat or milk. The FDA provides guidance on drug residues and food safety. ## Related Farming Guides - [Pasture Management For Sheep](/knowledge/animal-farming/sheep/pasture-management-for-sheep) - [Livestock Waste Management Composting Anaerobic Digestion Nutrient Recovery](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/livestock-waste-management-composting-anaerobic-digestion-nutrient-recovery) - [Drone Remote Sensing Pasture Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/drone-remote-sensing-pasture-management) - [Farm Health Intelligence Observation Records Biosecurity Diagnostics And Veterinary Escalation](/knowledge/animal-farming/farm-management/farm-health-intelligence-observation-records-biosecurity-diagnostics-and-veterinary-escalation) - [Goat Fiber Production Cashmere Mohair Management](/knowledge/animal-farming/goats/goat-fiber-production-cashmere-mohair-management) ## Related Clinical & Scientific Guides * [Water Buffalo Genetic Improvement and Breeding Programs](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-genetic-improvement-breeding-programs) * [Camel Farm Biosecurity: Disease Prevention and Quarantine Protocols](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/camel-farm-biosecurity-disease-prevention-quarantine-protocols) * [Water Buffalo Farm Equipment and Infrastructure](/knowledge/animal-farming/alternative-livestock/water-buffalo-farm-equipment-infrastructure) ## References and Further Reading - [www.fao.org](https://www.fao.org/dad-is) - [www.ars.usda.gov](https://www.ars.usda.gov/) - [www.merckvetmanual.com](https://www.merckvetmanual.com/management-and-nutrition) - [FAO Animal Production and Health](https://www.fao.org/animal-production/en). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. - [Animal Health and Welfare](https://www.nal.usda.gov/animal-health-and-welfare). USDA National Agricultural Library. - [Animal Production and Protection](https://www.ars.usda.gov/animal-production-and-protection). USDA Agricultural Research Service. - [Animal and Veterinary Resources](https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary). U.S. Food and Drug Administration. > This article is educational and is not a substitute for veterinary diagnosis, treatment, public-health guidance, or regulatory reporting.